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COMPILATION 



OF 



HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE 




RYAN 



1913 






Copyright 1913 
by 

Mary Ryan 



©CI.A350879 



'The great thing in this world is not so much M'here 
we stand as in what direction we are mo vino-." 



2^ 



'Discover a common ground— something that every- 
body knows something about. Begin there." 



PREFACE 



It is a truth invariably that no one is wholly independent of 
circumstances, and that environment will determine both one's place 
in history and their degree of success in life. 

Each day comes freighted with greater opportunities and en- 
larged interests, so as to meet these constantly increasing responsi- 
bilities; our lives should be developed along practical lines, to keep 
abreast of the times in modern achievement. 



Scientific Cookery 



Scientific Cookery is au exact science based upon the chemistry 
of foods. 

Food is anything that supplies nourishment, repair and energy 
to the body. 

Food of every description is wholesome and digestible in pro- 
portion as it approaches nearer the state of complete or perfect 
digestion. 

The process by which food is prepared or changed from a raw 
to a finished state is by heat, applicable in various forms. 

Food is consumed through the functions of the various organs 
in the body by the alchemy of nutrition. 

The preparation of human food so as to make it wholesome, 
nutritious and agreeable is the art upon which the physical well 
being of man is dependent. 

The outline of the following lessons and compilations are such 
as those taught in the Seventh and Eighth grades of the Public 
Schools, also in the intermediate classes of the Y. W. C. A. in its 
various institutions. 

However, in their present form they have been revised and 
enlarged so as to meet the requirements of the advanced student as 
well as the intermediate and juvenile classes, so as to make them 
applicable in laying a foundation for a scientific course of home 
study and Domestic Science Club work. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture 
Office of Experiment Stations 
A. C. True, Director 



Prepared by 

C. F. LANGWORTHY 

Expert in charge of Nutrition 

Investigations 



Dietary Standards 

DIETARY STANDARD FOR MAN IN FULL VIGOR 
AT MODERATE MUSCULAR WORK 



Condition Considered 


Protein 


Energy 


Food as purchased 
Food eaten 
Food digested 


Grams 

115 

100 
95 


Calories 
3,800 

3,500 

3,200 



ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF MINERAL' MATTER 
REQUIRED PER MAN PER DAY 

Grams 
Phosphoric acid (H3P.O4) . . . 3 to 4 

Sulphuric acid (H2S. O4) . . . 2 to 3.5 

Potassium oxid . . . . . 2 to 3 

Sodium oxid . . . . . 4 to 6 

Calcium oxid . . . . 0.7 to 1.0 

Magnesium oxid .... 0.3 to 0.5 

Iron . . . . . 0.006 to 0.012 

Chlorin . . . . . . 6 to 8 



U. S. Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A. C. True. Director 



Prepared by 
C. F. LANGWORTHY 

Expert in charge of 
Nutrition Investigations 



Functions and Uses of Food 



CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD 



r Water 



r EDIBLE PORTION^ 



Protein 
Fats 



FOOD AS 
PUR- 
CHASED^ 
CON- 
TAINS 



Flesh of meat, yolk t^^^^j^^^^ i Carbohydrates 
and white of eggs, I ^■,^^,^^ Matter 

wheat flour, etc [^ Qr Ash 

REFUSE 

Bones, entrails, 
shells, bran, etc. 

USE OF FOOD IN THE BODY 



PROTEIN Builds and repairs tissue 1 

White (albumen) of eggs, 

curd (casein) of milk, 

lean meat, gluten of wheat, etc. 



FATS Are stored as fat 

Fat of meat, butter, 
olive oil, oils of corn 
and wheat, etc. 

CARBOHYDRATES... Are transformed 
into fat, sugar, starch, etc. 



All served as fuel 
to yield energy in 
the forms of heat 
and muscular 
power. 



MINERAL MATTER OR ASH . . Share in forming bone. 
Phosphates of lime, assists in digestion, etc. 

potash, soda, etc. 



Food is that which, taken into the body, builds tissue or 
yields energy 



Food Outline 



1. Albumen 



fEggs 
■I Meat 
LFish 

I Animal 



I.PROTLIDS i 2. Casein -| 



3. 

4. 

15. 



I 



Vegetable 



Gluten — Cereals 

Gelatine — Bones and Fish 

Fibrine— Muscle of Meat 



.\ Milk 
/ Cheese 

f Peas 
J Beans 
] Lentils 
L Peanuts 



Use- 
To build up 
tissue and 
repair worn 
out tissue. 



ORGANIC ^ 



III. FATS AND OILS 



1 . Starch ■ 



\ Cereals 



II. CARBOHYDRATES.. -{ 



Vegetables 



( Fruits 
I 2. Sugar -j Vegetables 
L ( Sugar 



fl. Butter 

2. Cream 

I 3. Fat of Meat 

i 4. Fish 

5. Cereals 

I 6. Nuts 

17. Olive Oil 



Use — To furnish 
y energy and main- 
tain heat. 



I. MINERAL NATTER 



INORGANIC i 



(1- 

I 2. 
J, 3. 
14. 
15. 



Sodium 

Iron 

Lime 

Potash 

Sulphur 



1 



I 1. 
WATER j. Use \ 3. 

I I 4. 

J 15. 



Use — To build up bone and 
other tissue, to aid diges- 
tion, to purify the blood. 



Regulates temperature 
Aids in carrying off waste 
Acts as a carrier 
Aids in digestion 
Acts as a solvent 



10 







iiS? 



TABLE SET FOR BREAKFAST 

'A Breakfast in June," by Mary L. Wade 

— National Food Magazine. 



Laying the Table 



A table should look as neat and attractive as possible. Place silence 
cloth with nap up, and draw it straight and even. Lay the table cloth 
with the middle fold in the center of the table. See that the ends and 
corners are even. Place everything straight upon the table. Turn no 
dishes upside down. 

When the waiter passes the food to each person, it should be passed 
on the left side of the person. In placing a dish in front of a person, the 
waiter should stand at the right. 

Beverages and food served individually should be placed at the right. 

To clear the table remove all dishes from each place, then the meat 
and vegetables. 

Remove crumbs from cloth before bringing in desert. 

Position of Host and Hostess — Position of Host at the head of the 
table near entrance door; Hostess at the foot of the table opposite. 



11 



Placing knives, forks and spoons — Place the knife or knives at the 
right of each place, the sharp edge toward the plate, the fork or forks at 
the left, tines up, one inch from the edge, being careful to have the 
spacing the same at every place. Spoons at right of knife, bowls up. 

Placing of Glasses — Place the water glass at right of plate, at end 
of knife blade. 

Placing Napkins, Pepper, Salt — Place napkins at left of plate, pepper 
and salt near corners, or one of each between the places for two people. 

Sideboard and Side-table — Object to hold all extras that may be 
needed during a meal. 

Specific directions for home and table decorations given in class. 




12 




A COOKING LESSON AT FREDERICK DOUGLAS CENTER CHICAGO. 

— Xatioiial Food Magazine. 



13 



Housekeeping 



DIRECTIONS FOR DISH-WASHING: 

1. Have tile dishes scraped. 

2. Pile all articles of each kind together; plates by themselves, the 
largest at the bottom; cups by themselves; silver articles together, and 
steel knives and forks by themselves. 

3. Use hot, soapy water. 

SOAKING DISHES: 

Cold water should be used for soaking dishes which have been used 
for milk, eggs and starchy foods. Hot water for dishes used for sugar 
substances and for sticky, gummy substances like gelatine. Greasy dishes 
of all kinds, including knives, are more easily cleaned if first wiped with 
soft paper, which should be burned. 

ORDER: 

1. Glassware; 2. Silver; 3. Cups and saucers; 4. Plates; 5. Plat- 
ters, vegetable dishes, etc.; 6. Cooking utensils (if not washed first). 

Rinse all dishes in clean, hot water (except cut glass), drain and 
wipe with clean, dry towels. 

CARE OF THE SINK. 

When dish-washing is finished, wash every part of the sink with hot, 
soapy water. Wash above and around the sink. Use a skewer to clean 
behind the sink pipes. 

Flush the sink with boiling water every day and about once a week 
with a strong solution of washing soda. 

Use mauric acid on a swap stick, for removing collected waste and 
dirt on the porcelain basin, also a strong solution of soap suds with a 
small amount of gasoline added is a most excellent cleansing agent 
for the bath-room. 

SWEEPING. 
HOW TO SWEEP: 

Before beginning to sweep, see that no food is left uncovered in the 
room. Sweep from the edges of the room toward the center. Sweep with 
short strokes, keeping the broom close to the floor. Turn it edgewise to 
clean cracks. Always sweep a floor before washing or scrubbing it. 

DUSTING : 

Dust the wood work, furniture and movable articles with a soft, 
sanitary, absorbent cotton cloth. Shake it frequently out of the windows. 
Commence at the highest articles and work down. 

14 



Household Acids 

By Margaret Soundstrom. 



Keep acids away from iron. 
Keep acids away from children. 



That the art of good housekeeping and science of chemistry are 
very nearly related, is a fact that many housekeepers do not appre- 
ciate as fully as they might. 

It is not our purpose to treat the many phases of household 
chemistry, but to turn to use some of the acids which are daily used 
in the average household. 

Oxalic acid, which is very poisonous, is sold in the form of white 
crystals which readily dissolve in waiter. Brass and copper can be 
quickly and effectively cleaned with this acid because it acts chem- 
ically on the tarnish, removing it instantly. Tarnish is a deposit 
on a metal caused by the chemical action of the oxygen and damp- 
ness of the atmosphere. When the acid is applied to this tarnish it 
dissolves the deposit and leaves the surface clear. After the tarnish 
is removed, every bit of the acid must be rubbed otf with a dry cloth 
on which have been dropped a few drops of sweet oil, else clanger- 
ous green salts will be formed on the metal which might be thought- 
lessly rubbed off on the hands. 

Oxalic acid is also used for removing ink-stains on carpets, 
table covers, and even white materials. There are many kinds of 
inks, some containing iron compounds and some aniline and allied 
substances. Oxalic acid will not remove aniline ink-stains, but it 
will remove the iron. As it is impossible for the average person to 
tell what sort of ink has been spilled, it is always well to give the 
acid a trial. Fill a medicine dropper, and apply it drop by drop ; 
if the stain contains iron it will disappear. To neutralize the fur- 
ther action of the acid on the cloth the material should then be 
dipped in ammonia and water (one part ammonia to ten of water), 
and then rinsed in clear water. If the material is colored and the 
acids have caused it to fade, the ammonia and water will doubtless 
restore the color. 

Like oxalic acid in its effect on brass and copper, is the acid in 
vinegar known as acetic acid, produced by the alcoholic fermenta- 
tion of the sugar in the cider, and by those minute organisms which 
form the ''mother" of vinegar. 

15 



For the cleaning of metals, it is better to buy a small quantity 
of the pure acetic acid and dilute it with water (one of acid to 
twenty of Avater), rather than use vinegar the other ingredients of 
which often leave a discoloration. After cleaning brass and other 
metals with this acid, the surface should be thoroughly Avashed 
•\Adth ammonia and waiter. To clean brass water faucets such as 
are frequently found in kitchen sinks, ordinary vinegar will do 
very well, care being taken to rinse it all off afterwards. 

Acids as disinfectants do not seem to suggest themselves very 
much to the average housewife because there are so many profusely 
advertised alkalies put up and ready for use. These all have their 
value, but equally effective, and convenient always to have on hand 
are one or two of the standard acids. The intelligent use of car- 
bolic acid, in disinfecting white fabrics, colored materials, metals, 
woods, and the like, wouM' be of great saving to the wife and mother 
who has had to deal with a case of contagious disease. Used for 
disinfecting bedding and bed clothes it kills the germ spores in their 
vegetative stage and if used in its proper strength (one of acid to 
twenty of water), it "VAnll not injure fabrics in the least. All bed 
clothes and clothing from an infectious disease should be immersed 
in a bath of water and carbolic and then sent to the laundry. If by 
chance the family cat is also included in the sick list and shows 
signs of miange, two or three drops of the acid on some vaseline 
rubbed into the affected part will work wonders in healing the skin 
and causiing new fur to grow. The vaseline should be covered by 
a clean linen rag and securely tied on. 

One of the most useful acids that can be put into use in the 
home is hydrochloric acid, familiarly known as muriatic acid. Pow- 
erful though it is, this acid is one of the most commonly used chem- 
icals in the industrial world; why not then take advantage of its 
usefulness in the daily operations of the home ? It is a most familiar 
sight to all housekeepers to see their white porcelain sinks, tubs and 
hoppers discolored with yellowish brown stains, which they vainly 
try to scrub off with sand soap or a washing powder. The browai 
stains are caused by the iron in the water supply, and, as this iron 
is oxidized on to the porcelain by the action of the atmosphere, 
abrasive materials (sand soap and so forth), while they may take 
off some of it, do not accomplish their purpose nearly as well as 
hydrochloric acid which acts chemically on the iron deposit and 
completely removes the stains. To clean such spots take one part 
concentrated hydrochloric acid to ten parts Avater, about two table- 
spoons to twenty tablespoons of Avater is a good amount — and Avitli 
a small dish mop, Avash off the stains Avitli the liquid. Rinse Avith 
clear AA-ater and then AA^ash around AA'herever the acid had been AA'ith 
some Avashing soda dissoh^ed in AA'ater to neutralize the acid and 
prevent any injurious action Avhich it might have on the Avaste 
pipes. This acid should not touch the hands, as it is injurious to 
the skin. 

16 



From this use of hydrochloric acid it is very evident that it is 
an enemy of iron rust wherever it may be found, therefore in no 
part of the house is it more useful than in the laundry, where spo+s 
of rusit will make their appearance from one or another of many 
causes. To remove these spots spread the stained portion of ma- 
terial over a bowl containing one quart of water in which one tea- 
spoonful of borax has been dissolved. With a medicine dropper 
allow the undiluted hydrochloric acid to drop in the spot, one drop 
at a time until the rust brightens, then dip the material quickly into 
the bowl of borax and water. If the spot is not entirely gone, re- 
peat the same process over again until it disappears, then rinse in 
clear water several times. 

The acid in lemons, called citric acid, can be used in many ways 
in the household, for removing tarnish from metals and stains on 
bric-a-brac and picture frames, especially brass of delicate work- 
manship. The use of lemon juice should always be followed by 
rinsing with ammonia and water. Because the juice contains a 
natural acid it is both convenient and harmless though great care 
should be taken to dispose of the lemons as soon as they have been 
used. Citric acid is often used as a substitute for lemon juice in 
making lemonade as well as for lemon flavorings in cooking. 

Milk has been long resorted to as a remedy for removing stains 
though most people are so impatient to get all the ink out at once 
that they waste a great deal of milk without getting very good re- 
sults. If ink has been spilled on a fabric remove all the ink possi- 
ble with a spoon, and then use a small sponge. Take a medium 
size bowl or deep dish and put the stained portion of the material 
in it, then pour on enough milk to entirely cover it over. Let it 
stand for at least an hour and if the milk is very discolored pour 
it off and replenish with a fresh supply. Put the bowl and the 
stained fabric in a warm place such as would be selected for raising 
bread dough and leave it there until the milk has soured. The 
chemical action of the lactic acid ferment in the milk, as it sours, 
will have removed the ink much more effectively than if quantities 
of fresh milk had been used. If the stain is not entirely gone the 
process can be repeated until it disappears entirely when it will be 
found that the fibres of the fabric have remained uninjured. 

The souring of milk suggests to many women nothing further 
than the idea that the milk has spoiled and should be thrown away. 
Some thrifty housewives, especially those who live in country dis- 
tricts, use this milk with soda in baking their gingerbread. But 
the souring of milk, caused by lactic fermentation, produces lactic 
acid for which there are innumerable uses. Sour milk therefore 
should never be despised in the household ; the acid in it is valuable 
to the health and if there is no one willing to drink it just as it is, 
a very palatable beverage can be made by adding carbonated water 
and a little chopped ice. 

— Ainericdii Sunday Monl/ily Magazine. 

17 



The Decoration of the Home 



Mrs. James C. Bradford delivered the following address before 
the Homemakers' Association: 

In considering the beauty of the home, the location, the con- 
struction, and its relation to the outside, environments must not be 
overlooked. 

The interior decoration and the construction of the house must 
conform to all the requirements of the decorator — for good interior 
decoration has its beginning in good architecture. A room which 
has good lines, good proportion, requires less decoration, and looks 
much better than one not so constructed. 

Proportion is "good breeding in architecture." There are a 
few fundamental principles of artistic decoration which one must 
consider. Proportion of room, its location and its color harmony. 
In the room to be decorated there must first be good lines. If the 
room is too high the effect of lowering the ceiling may be attained by 
allowing the ceiling paper to be dropped to meet the wall paper, 
and put a picture moulding where the ceiling paper and the wall 
paper meet. A low ceiling may be made to look higher by using a 
striped paper from baseboard to ceiling, but one must avoid big 
stripes, as stripes must be unobtrusive and of same color-tone as 
background of paper. 

Limiting door space adds to the wall paper. After line and 
proportion comes color scheme. The color treatment of a room 
depends upon the quantity and the quality of the light in the room 
and its location. Harmony and appropriateness are to be carefully 
watched in the selection of colors. Harmony in color is the selection 
of colors somewhat in the same tone, or of contrasting colors of the 
same depth of tone. Contrasting colors emphasize each other. Red, 
green and blue are the primary colors. A knowledge of comple- 
mentary colors is important. Colors when combined should make a 
harmonious tone, altogether harmonious and pleasing to the eye. 
These colors form the strongest contrast. There are cool colors, such 
as blues in various grades, grays and apple greens ; the warm colors 
are the reds, golden browns, pure gold, olive green. 

Colors are also classified as grave, gay, or sober. In the selec- 
tion of color schemes for a room, one must first consider the har- 
monious whole, which depends upon the background. In a room in 
which the walls are colored bright red, and the floor covered with 
a bright green rug, the contrast between the two will make both 
stand out and will be offensive to the eye. If the background of 
the floor and the walls is so striking, it is difficult to have furnishings 
blend with the color. Better to have one prevailing color as the 

18 



predominant tone, or rather, two contrasting ones. The background 
depends upon the floor color, the wall color and the hangings. In 
selecting these colors we must be guided by what is called graduation 
of color. The strongest color should begin at the base, which is the 
floor. The walls should represent the next lighter color, and the 
ceilings the last and third lightest color in the graduation. There- 
fore, the floor, wall and ceiling should have a certain relation to 
each other, as they are the setting or background of the furnishing, 
which includes furniture, curtains and other accessories in the 
decorations. Hangings and furniture cover should blend into the 
walls and the floor. 

In summing up the principles and rules of good taste in furnish- 
ings and decoration there are a few simple rules that should guide 
one. Simplicity of treatment, floor covering, the size of the room, 
height of ceiling and location of the room, and all that pertains to 
cleanliness and sanitary conditions. Simplicity is the first law of 
good taste. The Japanese understood this to a very great degree. 
The bric-a-brac and dust catching articles were kept in cupboards. 

In decorating begin with the fixed stationary parts, floor, walls, 
ceiling. Furniture, draperies, pictures, bric-a-brac are used to com- 
plete the picture. To secure good results, attend first to the floor. 
It is the foundation color. Carpet, if used, should conform to the 
conditions of the room. The size of the room will determine the 
size of the figure in the carpet. Have your design restful to the 
eye. Bare floors with rugs are much more sanitary and pleasing. 
Furniture should conform to the room and its uses. The choice 
of furniture is determined by the use to which the room is to be put. 
The cost of an article of furniture is not the measure of its value. 
Pictures not alone adorn the home, but should be selected for the 
development of the taste and character of the family. Good photo- 
graphs and good prints help to educate the taste of the child. 
Framing and hanging of pictures are essential. Pictures are more 
desirable than bric-a-brac. 

Plants and flowers add much to the beauty, grace and harmony 
of the docoration. Window boxes add much to the beauty and 
pleasure of the home. 

Appropriateness and the eternal fitness of things should always 
be considered in the decoration. One beautiful picture, comfortable 
chairs, a table that will hold something, will add to the simplicity 
and comfort of the house. Above all things, study comfort and the 
restfulness of the home, for it is the place where the good man, after 
the day's labor is over, goes for rest and comfort. 



19 



Average Composition of American Food Products 



Langworthy's Standard 



Food materials (as purcliasecl). 

AMMAL FOODS Refuse Water 

Beef, Fresh : Per ct. Per ct. 

Chuck, including slioulder. . 17.3 54.0 

Chuck ribs 19.1 53.8 

Flank 5.5 56.1 

Loin 13.3 52.9 

Porterhouse steak 12.7 52.4 

Sirloin steak 12.8 54.0 

Ribs 20.1 45.3 

Round 8.5 62.5 

Beef, Corned, Canned, Piceled and Dried : . 

Corned beef S.4 49.2 

Tongue, pickled 6.0 5S.9 

Dried, salted and smoked. . . 4.7 53.7 

Veal : 

Breast 23.3 52.5 

Leg 11.7 03.4 

Leg cutlets 3.4 68.3 

Mutton : 

Flank 9.9 39.0 

Leg, hind 17.7 51.9 

Shoulder 22.1 46.8 

Lamb : 

Breast 19.1 45.5 

Leg, hind 13.8 50.3 

Pork, Fresh : 

Flank 18.0 48.5 

Ham 10.3 45.1 

Loin chops 19.3 40.8 

Shoulder 12.4 44.9 

Tenderloin 66.5 

Pork, Salted, Cured and Pickled : 

Ham, smoked 12.2 35.8 

Shoulder, smoked 18.9 30.7 

Salt pork 7.9 

Bacon, smoked 8.7 18.4 

Sausage : 

Bologna 3.3 55.2 

Farmer 3.9 22.2 

Frankfort 57.2 

Soups : 

Celery, cream of 88.6 

Beef 92.9 

Meat stew 84.5 

Tomato 90.0 

Poultry : 

Chicken, broilers 41.6 43.7 

Fowls 25.9 47.1 

Goose 17.6 38.5 

Turkey 22.7 42.4 

Fish : 

Cod, dressed 29.9 58.5 

Halibut, steaks or sections.. 17.7 61.9 

Mackerel, whole 44.7 40.4 

Perch, yellow, dressed 35.1 50.7 

Shad, whole 50.1 35.2 

Shad, roe 71.2 

Fish, Salt : Cod 24.9 40.2 

20 



Protein 
Per ct. 

15.8 

15.3 

18.6 

16.4 

19.1 

16.5 

14.4 

19.2 



14.3 
11.9 

26.4 



15.7 
18.3 
20.1 



13.8 
15.4 
13.7 



15.4 
16.0 



15.1 
14.3 
13.2 
12.0 
18.9 



14.5 

12.6 

1.9 

9.5 



18.2 
27.9 
19.6 



2.1 
4.4 
4.6 
l.S 



12.8 
13.7 
13.4 
16.1 



11.1 
15.3 
10.2 
12.8 
9.4 
20.9 

16.0 



Fat 
Per ct, 
12.5 
11.1 
19.9 
16.9 
17.9 
16.1 
20.0 
9.2 



03 9 

19!2 

6.9 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



8.2 
5.8 
7.5 



36.9 
14.5 
17.1 



19.1 
19.7 



18.6 
29.7 
26.0 
29.8 
13.0 



33.2 
33.0 
86.2 
59.4 



19.7 
40.4 
18.6 



2.8 

.4 

4.3 

1.1 



1.4 
12.3 
29.8 
18.4 



4.4 
4.2 



4.8 
3.8 



Per 



ct. 



1.1 



5.0 
1.1 
5.5 
5.6 



Ash 

Per ct. 

0.7 

.8 
.8 
.9 
.S 
.9 

i.'o 



4.6 
4.3 
S.9 



Fuel 

alue per , 

pound 

Cals. 

791 

726 

1,141 

980 

1,069 

949 

1.069 

720 



1.220 
991 
757 



1.0 

1.0 



1.0 



4.2 
5.0 
3.9 
4.5 



3.8 
7. .J 
3.4 



1.5 
1.2 
1.1 
1.5 



2.6 



.9 
.7 

.9 

1.5 
3 8.5 



616 
560 
067 



1.740 
865 
939 



1.050 
1,086 



1 ,02.5 
1,458 
1,289 
1,421 

868 



1,603 
1,561 
3,514 
2,570 



1.126 
2.137 
1,120 



242 
116 



179 



280 

745 

1.446 

1,035 



209 
455 

355 
260 
364 

580 

306 



Average Composition of American Food Products— Continued 



Food materials (as purchased). 

ANIMAL FOODS Refuse 

Per ct. 
Fisn, Canned : 

Salmon 14.2 

Sardines 5.0 

Shellfish : 

Oysters, "Solids" 

Clams 

Crabs 52.4 

Lobsters 61.7 

Eggs : Hen's eggs 11.2 

Dairy Products, Etc. 

Butter ! 

AVhole milk 

Skim milk 

Buttermilk 

Condensed milk 

Cream 

Cheese, Cheddar 

Cheese, full cream 



Water 
Per ct. 



Protein 
Per ct. 



Fuel 

Carbo- value per 

Fat hydrates Ash pound 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Cals. 



56.S 


19.5 


7.5 




2.0 


657 


53.6 


23.7 


12.1 




5.3 


918 


8S.3 


6.0 


1.3 


3.3 


1.1 


221 


80.8 


10.6 


1.1 


5.2 


2.3 


331 


36.7 


7.9 


.9 


.(', 


1.5 


191 


30.7 


5.9 


. 1 


• - 


.8 


139 


65.5 


13.1 


9.3 




.9 


613 


11.0 


1.0 


85.0 




3.0 


3,450 


87.0 


3.3 


4.0 


5.0 


. 1 


312 


90.5 


3.4 


.3 


5.1 


.7 


166 


91.0 


3.0 


.0 


4.S 


. 1 


162 


26.9 


8.8 


8.3 


54.1 


1.9 


1,476 


74.0 


2.5 


18.5 


4.5 


.o 


874 


27.4 


27.7 


36.8 


4.1 


4.0 


2,063 


34.2 


25.9 


33.7 


2.4 


o.S 


1,874 



vegetable food. 

Flour, Meal, Etc. : 

Entire-wheat flour 

Graham flour 

AYheat flour, patent roller process- 
High grade and medium 

Low grade 

Crushed wheat 

Buckwheat flour 

Corn meal 

Oatmeal 

Rice 

Tapioca 

Starch 

Bread, Pastry, Etc. : 

White bread 

Brown bread 

Graham bread 

Whole-wheat bread 

Rye bread 

Cake 

Cream Crackers 

Oyster crackers 

Soda crackers 

Molasses 

Candy 

Honey 

Sugar, granulated 

Maple syrup 

Vegetables : 

Beans, dried 

Beans, Lima, shelled 

Beans, string 7.0 

Beets 20.0 

Cabbage 15.0 

Celery 20.0 

Corn, green (sweet), edible 

portion 

Cucumbers 15.0 

Lettuce 15.0 

Mushrooms 



11.4 


13.S 


1.9 


71.9 


1.0 


1,632 


11.3 


13.3 


O O 


71.4 


1.8 


1,626 


12.0 


11.4 


1.0 


75.1 


.5 


1,610 


12.0 


14.0 


1.9 


71.2 


.9 


1,623 


10.1 


11.1 


1.7 


75.5 


1.6 


1,640 


13.6 


6.4 


L2 


77.9 


.9 


1,578 


12.5 


9.2 


1.9 


75.4 


1.0 


1,612 


1 .o 


16.1 


7.2 


67.5 


1.9 


1,808 


12.3 


8.0 


.3 


79.0 


.4 


1,591 


11.4 


.4 


.1 


88.0 
90.0 


.1 


1,608 
1.633 


35.3 


9.2 


1.3 


53.1 


1.1 


1,183 


43.6 


5.4 


1.8 


47.1 


2.1 


1,025 


35.7 


8.9 


1.8 


52.1 


1.5 


1,179 


38.4 


9.7 


.9 


49.7 


1.3 


1,114 


35.7 


9.0 


.6 


53.2 


1.5 


1,153 


19.9 


6.3 


9.0 


63.3 


1.5 


1,626 


6.8 


9.7 12.1 


69.7 


1.7 


1,929 


4.8 


11.3 10.5 


70.5 


2.9 


1,908 


5.9 


9.8 


9.1 


73.1 


2.1 


1,872 


25.1 


2.4 




69.3 
96.0 


3.2 


1,301 
1,742 


is.2 


.4 




81.2 

100.0 

71.4 


2 


1,481 
1,814 
1,295 


12.6 


22.5 


1.8 


.59.0 


o ;; 


1,562 


68.5 


7.1 


7 


22.0 


1.7 


556 


83.0 


2.1 


.o 


6.9 


.7 


175 


70.0 


1.3 


.1 


1 . 1 


.9 


167 


1 1 .1 


1.4 


o 


4.8 


.9 


121 


75. G 


.0 


.1 


2.6 


.8 


68 


75.4 


3.1 


1.1 


19.7 


.7 


458 


81.1 


.7 


o 


2.6 


.4 


68 


80.5 


1.0 


o 


2 5 


.8 


72 


88.1 


3.5 


A 


6.8 


1.2 


203 



21 



Food materials (as purchased). 

Refuse 

VEGETABLE FOOD. Per Ct. 

Onions 10.0 

Parsnips 20.0 

Peas (Pisum sativum), dried .... 
Peas (Pisum satirum) , sbcllcd .... 

Cowpeas, dried 

Potatoes 20.0 

Rhubarb 40.0 

Sweet potatoes 20.0 

Spinach 

Squash 50.0 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 30.0 

Vegetables, Canned : 

Peas (Pisum sativum), grec n .... 

Corn, green 

Tomatoes 

Fruits, Berries, Etc., Frestt : 
Apples 25.0 

Bananas 35.0 

Grapes 25.0 

Lemons 30.0 

Muskmelons 50.0 

Oranges 27.0 

Pears 10.0 

Persimmons, edible portion 

Raspberries 

Strawberries 5.0 

Watermelons 59.4 

Fruits, Dried : 

Apples 

Apricots 

Dates 10.0 

Figs 

Nuts : 

Almonds 45.0 

Beechnuts 40.8 

Brazil nuts 49.6 

Butternuts 86.4 

Chestnuts, fresh 16.0 

Chestnuts, dried 24.0 

Cocoanuts 48.8 

Cocoanut, prepared 

Filberts 52.1 

Hickory nuts 62.2 

Pecans, polished 53.2 

Peanuts 24.5 

Pinon (Pinus edulis) 40.6 

Walnuts, California, black.. 74.1 

Walnuts, California, soft-shell 58.1 

Raisins 10.0 

Miscellaneous : 

Chocolate 

Cocoa, powdered 

Cereal coffee infusion (1 part 
boiled in 20 parts water) 



Americ 


an Fog 


.d Pre 


►ducts- 


-Contii 


lued 






Fuel 








Carbo- 


Vi 


ilue per 


5e Water 


Protein 


Fat 


hydrates 


Ash 


pound 


;t. Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Cals. 


78.9 


1.4 


.3 


8.9 


.5 


199 


66.4 


1.3 


.4 


10.8 


1.1 


236 


9.5 


24.6 


1.0 


62.0 


2.9 


1,612 


74.6 


7.0 


.5 


16.9 


1.0 


454 


13.0 


21.4 


1.4 


60.8 


3.4 


1,548 


62.6 


1.8 


.1 


14.7 


.8 


303 


56.6 


.4 


.4 


2 


.4 


63 


55.2 


1.4 


.6 


21.9 


.9 


448 


92.3 


2.1 


.3 


3.2 


2.1 


108 


44.2 


.7 


o 


4.5 


.4 


102 


94.3 


.9 


.4 


3.9 


..:> 


108 


62.7 


.9 


.1 


5.7 


.6 


124 


85.3 


3.6 


.2 


9.8 


1.1 


251 


76.1 


2.8 


1.2 


19.0 


.9 


444 


94.0 


1.2 


2 


4.0 


.6 


102 



63. 



10.8 



2.3 



68.5 



214 



48.9 


.8 


.4 


14.3 


.6 


290 


58.0 


1.0 


1.2 


14.4 


.4 


328 


62.5 


.7 


..J 


5.9 


.4 


140 


44.8 


3 




4.6 


.3 


89 


63.4 


.0 


.1 


8.5 


.4 


169 


76.0 


.5 


.4 


12.7 


.4 


256 


66.1 


.8 


.7 


31.5 


.9 


614 


85.8 


1.0 




12.6 


.6 


247 


85.9 


.9 


.6 


7.0 


.0 


168 


37.5 


.2 


.1 


2.7 


.1 


57 


28.1 


1.6 


2.2 


66.1 


2.0 


1,317 


81.4 


.9 




17.3 


.4 


330 


13.8 


1.9 


2.5 


70.6 


1.6 


1.416 


18.8 


4.3 


.3 


74.2 


2.4 


1,437 


2.7 


11.5 


30.2 


9.5 


1.1 


1,600 


2.3 


13.0 


34.0 


7.8 


2.1 


1,750 


2.6 


8.6 


33.7 


3.5 


2.0 


1,580 


.6 


3.8 


8.3 


.5 


.4 


413 


37.8 


5.2 


4.5 


35.4 


1.1 


918 


4.5 


8.1 


5.3 


56.4 


1.7 


1,384 


7.2 


2.9 


25.9 


14.3 


.9 


1,358 


3.5 


6.3 


57.4 


31.5 


1.3 


3,003 


1.8 


7.5 


31.3 


6.2 


1.1 


1,512 


1.4 


5.8 


25.5 


4.3 


.8 


1,213 


1.4 


5.2 


33.3 


6.2 


.7 


1,551 


6.9 


19.5 


29.1 


18.5 


1.5 


1,864 


2.0 


8.7 


36.8 


10.2 


1.7 


1,829 


.6 


7.2 


14.6 


3.0 


.o 


774 


1.0 


6.9 


26.6 


6.8 


.6 


1,322 



1,406 



5.9 


12.9 


48.7 


30.3 


2.2 


2,750 


4.6 


21.6 


28.9 


37.7 


7.2 


2,242 



98.2 



1.4 .2 29 

National Food Magazine. 



22 



Milk 



COMPOSITION 





Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Ash 


Whole Milk 


Percent. 

87.0 
90 5 


Percent. 
3 3 
3.4 


Percent. 
4 
.3 


Percent. 
5.0 
5 1 


Percent. 
7 


Skim Milk 







Milk is preserved by a low temperature, ranging from forty to fifty 
degrees. Fresh milk will maintain its sweetness of flavor and quality 
of content from 24 to 3 6 hours at temperature as above stated, where 
it has been produced and handled under sanitary conditions. 

What causes milk to sour? 

Milk is made sour by a group of bacteria organisms known as lactic 
acid bacteria. They act on the sugar of the milk which forms the acid. 

Milk that has changed may be sweetened or rendered fit for use 
again by stirring in a little soda. 

Salt will curdle new milk, hence in preparing porridge, gravies, etc., 
salt should not be added until the dish is prepared. 

MILK — General Rules. 

Vessels used for milk must be thoroughly cleansed; tins should be 
rinsed in luke-warm water and washed thoroughly with hot water and 
soap, then rinsed in boiling water. Cover milk with muslin and keep in 
a cool place. Milk may be pasteurized to destroy disease germs. 

PASTEURIZED MILK. 

Fill sterile bottles or jars nearly full of milk, cork them with baked 
cotton, place on rings in a deep pan and fill with cold water so that the 
water may be as high outside the jars as the milk is inside, place the pan 
over the fire and heat until small bubbles appear around the top of the 
milk (about 155° F.) ; remove to the back of the fire and allow the bottles 
to stand there 15 m., then reduce the temperature as quickly as possible, 
and when milk is cold remove the bottles from the water and keep in a 
cold place. In summer milk should be pasteurized twice a day for babies. 



23 



Rules for Custards 



The eggs should he thoroughly mixed, hut not beaten light, the sugar 
and salt added to these and the hot milk added slowly. Custards must 
be cooked over a moderate heat; if a custard curdles put it in a pan of 
cold water and beat until smooth. Use the yolks instead of the whole 
eggs to make a soft custard. 

SOFT CUSTARD 

1 pt. milk, scalded, % t. salt, 

4 T. sugar, V2 t. flavoring, 

1 T. cornstarch, 1 egg or 2 yolks. 

Mix sugar, corn starch and salt; add egg slightly beaten. Add 
scalded milk, stirring constantly. Cook in double-boiler until it thickens 
slightly. Cool and flavor. 

CARAMEL CUSTARD 

4 c. scalded milk, % t. salt. 

5 eggs, 1 t. vanilla, 
1/4 c, water, V2 c. sugar. 

Melt sugar in granite saucepan until it changes to a syrup of light 
brown color. Add water and when syrup is dissolved, add milk, boaten 
eggs, salt and flavoring. Pour into buttered moulds and bake slowly, 

CUP CUSTARD OR BAKED CUSTARD 

1 pt. milk, 4 T. sugar, 

2 eggs, spk. salt. 

Beat eggs slightly, and pour the milk into the beaten egg, add salt 
and sugar and stir until the sugar dissolves. If desired a little nutmeg or 
flavoring may be added. Pour into buttered cups or a pudding dish, stand 
the cups in a pan of boiling water, put the pan in the oven and bake until 
the custards are firm in the center, — 20-30 m. Try with a knife. If the 
knife comes out clean the custards are done. 



ORANGE CUSTARD. 

Arrange slices of sweet oranges in glass dish, pour over thepi soft 
custard. 

Chill and serve. Bananas and oranges alternately may be used. 

24 



FLOATING ISLAXD. 



1 pt. milk, 
4 eggs, 
4 T. sugar, 



Vi t. salt, 

1/4 t. spice, or i/^ t. flavoring, 

1 T. cornstarch. 



Scald the milk. Separate the eggs. Beat the whites until very stiff, 
add 2 t. sugar to them, beat slightly and scrape mixture on top of the hot 
milk. Cook 5 m. or until firm. Mix salt, sugar and cornstarch. Add 
to yolks and beat slightly. Remove white of eggs and pour the hot milk 
on the beaten yolks slowly. Put this mixture into double boiler and stir 
until it thickens. When nearly cool, stir in flavoring and put the whites 
on the top and serve cold as a pudding. A pretty way to serve it is to 
lay specks of jelly on the whites. 

GOLDEN ROD TOAST 

Cook 3 eggs 20 m. Separate the yolk from the white and chop the 
whites fine. Toast 4 slices of bread; make 1 c. of thin white sauce with 
1 c. of cream or milk, two T. butter, 1 1/^ T. of flour, salt and pepper to 
taste. Stir the whites into the sauce, and when the sauce is hot pour it 
over the toast. Rub the yolks through a fine strainer over the whole. 



OMELET 



3 eggs, 
1/2 t. salt. 



spk. pepper, 
3 T. hot water. 



Beat the yolks of the eggs until thick; add salt, pepper and water. 
Fold in the whites of the eggs beaten stiff. Cook in a hot buttered omelet 
pan until brown underneath. Finish cooking on the top grate of the oven. 
Chopped parsley, cheese, fruit, jelly or meat may be placed in the center. 
Fold and turn upon heated platter. 



Accurate Measurement 

Accurate measurement is essential to insure good cooking. All meas- 
urements should be made LEVEL. 

Half a spoonful is obtained by dividing through the middle length- 



Abbreviations, 
ssp. — saltspoon. 

t. — -teaspoon. 

T. — tablespoon. 

c. — cup. 

qt. — quart. 

pt. — pint, 
spk. — speck. 

lb. — pound. 

m. — minute 



Measurements. 

60 drops. — 1 t. 

8 ssp. — 1 t. 

3 t. — 1 T. 

16 T. — 1 c. 

2 c. — 1 pt. 
2 pts. — 1 qt. 



Weights. 
2 c. butter (packed)^ — 1 pound. 
4 c. flour (pastry) — 1 pound. 
2 c. sugar — 1 pound. 
2 c. chopped meat — 1 pound. 
9 eggs — 1 pound. 

2 T. butter — 1 ounce. 
4 T. flour — 1 ounce. 

8 qts. — 1 pk. 

3 c. meal — 1 lb. 



25 



Pudding 



CORN STARCH PUDDING 

1 qt. of milk, i^ t. salt, 

Yz c. cornstarch, Whites of 3 eggs, 

1/4 c. sugar, 1 t. vanilla. 

Scald the milk; mix the cornstarch with sugar and stir into the hot 
milk; and cook 15 m., then, before folding in the v/hites of the eggs, 
beaten stiff, add the vanilla. Turn into a mould which has been 7'insed 
in cold water and set aside to become chilled and firm. Serve with cur- 
rent jelly, cream and sugar, or with a soft custard. 

For Chocolate Cornstarch Pudding, use V2 c. sugar and 2 oz. of 
chocolate. 



TAPIOCA CREAM. 

Ys c. pearl tapioca, spk. salt, 

1 pt. milk, whites of 2 eggs, 

yolks of 2 "eggs, Y2 t. vanilla, 

% c. sugar. 

Pick over the tapioca, put it in the top of a double boiler and cover 
with boiling water. Add the milk as soon as the water is absorbed, and 
cook until the tapioca is soft and clear. Beat the yolks of the eggs, add 
the salt and sugar and the hot milk, and cook until it thickens like soft 
custard. Remove from the fire, fold in the whites of the eggs beaten 
stiff. Flavor when cold. The whites may be mixed with 2 T. powdered 
sugar, put on top of pudding and brown in oven a few minutes. 



APPLE TAPIOCA. 

% c. pearl or minute % t. salt, 

tapioca, 7 sour apples, 

2 Y2 c. boiling water, Y2 c sugar. 
Cold water, 

Soak tapioca 1 hr. in cold water to cover; drain, add boiling water 
and salt; cook in double boiler until transparent. Core and pare apples, 
arrange in buttered pudding dish, fill cavities with sugar, pour over 
tapioca, and bake in moderate oven until apples are soft. Serve with 
sugar and cream. 

Minute tapioca requires no soaking. 

26 



RICE PUDDING. 

y2 c. of well washed rice, 1 ssp. salt, 

Yz c. sugar, 1 qt. milk. 

Soak 1/^ hr. Bake 2 hrs., slowly at first, till the rice has softened 
and thickened the milk; then let it brown slightly. This is creamy and 
delicious, though called "Poor Man's Pudding." Serve with milk and 
sugar or with strawberry jam. 



CUSTARD SAUCE 

1^ c. .scalded milk, i/i c. sugar, 

Ys t. salt, y2 t- vanilla. 

Yolks of 3 eggs. 

Beat eggs slightly, add sugar and salt; stir constantly while adding 
gradually the hot milk. Cook in double boiler until mixture thickens; 
chill and flavor. 



RICE WITH APPLES OR PINEAPPLE 

2 c. rice, (steamed), Yz c. sugar, 

3 eggs, 2 apples, (steamed )* 

Y2 c milk. 

Pare and core the apples, cut in eighths and cook until soft. Steam 
the rice, add well beaten yolks of eggs, sugar and cooked apples. Fold 
in the stiffly beaten whites and bake 30 m. in well-buttered baking dish. 
Serve with cream. 



27 



Eggs 



COaiPOSITION 

Proteid, 14.9%, M. M., 1%, 

Fat, 10.6%, Water, 73.5%. 

Wash the eggs as soon as brought from the store. 

They should be kept in a cool place. The white of an egg contains 
albumen and water; the yolk contains albumen, fat and sulphur. 

Eggs cooked below the boiling point are more digestible than if 
boiled. 

Eggs are beaten slightly when used for thickening. 

SOFT COOKED EGGS 

Put the eggs into a saucepan, cover with boiling water and let stand 
where the water will keep just below boiling point for 5 minutes. • 

HARD COOKED EGGS 

Cook them in water just bubbling 30 min. This method renders the 
yolk mealy. 

POACHED OR DROPPED EGGS 

Fill a pan with boiling, salted water. Break each egg into a wet 
saucer and slip it into the water; set the pan back where the water will 
not boil. Dip the water over the eggs with a spoon. When the white is 
firm and a film has formed over the yolk they are cooked. Take them up 
with a skimmer, drain and serve on toast. Season with salt. 

SCRAMBLED EGGS 

3 eggs, Vzt. salt, i^c. milk, spk. pepper. 

Beat the eggs slightly, add the milk and seasoning. Cook in a hot, 
buttered frying pan, stirring constantly until thick. Serve hot. 

JAPANESE EGGS 

Three hard-boiled eggs, 3 sardines, i/^ teaspoon of salt, 1 tablespoon 
of butter, a few grains of cayenne, IVz cups of hot boiled rice, 1 cup of 
tomato sauce. 

Cut the eggs lengthwise and remove the yolks. Mince the sardines 
after removing the bones. Mix egg yolks, sardines, butter, and season- 
ings. Form into balls and place a ball in each half of white of egg. 
Spread the rice on a platter and arrange the eggs on it. Pour the tomato 
sauce around the eggs. 

28 



DIFFERENT CLASSES OF "ROTS." 

"Rots: Eggs which are absolutely unfit for food. The different 
classes of rots may be defined as follows: 

"[a] Black rot: This is the easiest class of rots to recognize and, 
consequently the best known. When the egg is held before the candle 
the contents have a blackish appearance, and in most cases the air cell is 
very prominent. The formation of hydrogen sulphid gas in the egg causes 
the contents to blacken and gives rise to the characteristic rotten egg smell, 
and sometimes causes the egg to explode. 

"[b] White rot: These eggs have a characteristic sour smell. The 
contents become watery, the yolk and white mixed, and the whole egg 
offensive to both the sight and the smell. It is also known as the 'mixed 
rot.' 

"[c] Spot rot: In this the foreign growth has not contaminated the 
entire egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. Such eggs are 
readily picked out with the candle, and when broken show lumpy particles 
adhering to the inside of the shell. These lumps are of various colors 
and appearances. It is probable that spot rots are caused as much by 
mold as bacteria, but for practical purposes the distinction is unnecessary. 

"To all intents an'd purposes the spot rot, as explained above, is 
practically the same as the brown and black spots described under the 
general head of 'spots.' The spot rot is also placed under the general 
head of rots simply because some candlers will call it a spot, while others 
designate it as a spot rot. Pink and blood rots are names which are also 
applied to certain classes of rotten eggs, the pink rot deriving its name 
from the peculiar pinkish color of the contents when held before the 
candle. The same is true of the blood rot, which is bloody or red in 
appearance." 

If those producing eggs for market purposes will carefully study 
the foregoing and then grade their eggs before sending them to the market, 
better prices will be obtained and a reputation will be made which is 
bound to result beneficially to the producer. 



Z') 



Cheese 



General Rules 

Cheese should not be tightly covered. 

When it becomes dry and hard, grate and keep covered until ready 
to use. It may be sprinkled into soups or added to starchy foods. 

Soda, in cheese dishes which are cooked, makes the casein more 
digestible. A soft, crumbly cheese is best for cooking. 

Cheese is sufficiently cooked when melted, if cooked longer it be- 
comes tough and leathery. 

COMPOSITION OF CHEESE 

Proteid, 31.23%, Water, 30.17%, 

Fat, 34.3 9% Mineral Matter, 4.21%. 

CHEESE FONDUE. 

y2 lb. grated cheese, 14 t. salt, 

1 T. butter, 14 t. mustard, 

1 t. corn starch or 1 egg, Few grains cayenne pepper, 

% c. cream or milk. 

Melt butter, remove from fire, add corn starch, stir until well mixed, 
then add cream gradually and cook 2 m. Add cheese and stir until cheese 
is melted. Season and serve on crackers. 

Either a double boiler or a chafing dish may be used. 

MACARONI AND CHEESE 

V2 lb. macaroni, 1 pt. white sauce, 

1 c. cheese. 

Boil the macaroni and prepare white sauce. Have ready grated 
cheese. Butter a pudding dish, put in a layer of macaroni, one of sauce 
and one of cheese, another layer each of macaroni and sauce. Mix the 
remaining cheese with bread crumbs and spread over top. 

Bake 15 m. in a hot oven. 

Macaroni should be boiled from 20 to 30 m. 

WELSH RAREBIT 

Select richest and best American cheese, the milder the better, as 
melting brings out strength. To make 5 rarebits, take 1 pound cheese, 
grate and put in tin or porcelain-lined sauce-pan; add ale, (old is best) 
enough to thin the cheese sufficiently, say about a wine glass to each 
rarebit. Place over fire, stir until melted. Have slice of toast ready for 
each rarebit (crusts trimmed); put a slice on each plate, and pour cheese 
enough over each piece to cover it. Serve while hot. 

30 



Leavening Agents 



(1. 

Carbon dioxide found by \ 2. 



Action of yeast fl. 

Combinations of an | 2. 

alkali, acid and 

moisture. 



Baking PoAvder 



Baking Powder 

Soda and Cream of 
Tartar. 

Soda and Sour Milk. 

Soda and Molasses. 

Carbonate of Am- 
monia. 



cream of tartar, 
soda, 



with sufficient liquid to make it thin 



I 1/4 starch. 

Batter is a mixture of flour 
enough to be beaten. 

Pour-Batter, 1 meas. of liquid to 1 meas. of flour. 

Drop-Batter, 1 meas. of liquid to 2 meas. of flour. 

General directions for Batters and Doughs: 

Sift flour before measuring. Put flour by spoonfuls into the cup; do 
not press or shake down. Mix and sift dry ingredients. Measure dry, 
then liquid ingredients, shortening may be rubbed or chopped in while 
cold, or creamed; or it may be melted and then added to dry ingredients, 
or added after the liquid. Use 2 t. baking powder to 1 c. flour. If eggs 
are us'ed, less baking powder will be required. 

Baking powder mixtures should be handled as little as possible. 

Baking powder mixtures require a hot oven. 

Proportion of soda to sour milk: l^ t. to 1 c. thick, sour milk. 

Proportion of soda to molasses: 1 t. to 1 c. molasses. 

fl. Butter. 

Shortening added to make mixture tender. 



2 

i 3: 

I 4. 

fl. 

i 2. 



Lard. 

Drippings . 

Suet. 

Steam. 

Air 

Carbon dioxide. 



Gas introduced to make mixtures porous 
or light. 

POPOVERS. 

1 c. flour, 1 c. milk, 

1/4 t. salt, 2 small or 1 large egg. 

Mix salt and flour and add milk until a smooth paste is formed; add 
the remainder of the milk with the beaten egg and beat thoroughly. 
Bake in hot buttered gem pans in a quick oven 30 to 40 m., or until the 
puffs are brown and well popped over. 

DIRECTIONS FOR BAKING CAKE. 

Divide time into quarters. First quarter, cake should begin to rise; 
second quarter, cake should contiAue rising; third quarter, cake should 
finish rising and begin to brown; fourth quarter, cake should finish brown- 
ing and shrink from sides of pan. 

TESTS FOR OVEN. 

Place a piece of unglazed paper in oven. For hot oven, paper must 
brown in 3 m.; for moderate oven, paper must brown in 5 m.; for slow 
oven, paper must brown in 10 m. 

HEATING OF THE GAS OVEN. 

For loaf cakes and ginger breads heat oven with gas turned on full 
for 3 m. Put in cakes, turn down gas half way; at the end of 10 m. 
increase or decrease as desired. 

For layer cakes heat oven 5 min. with gas turned on full. Put cake 
in and leave gas as it is for about S min., then decrease. 

31 



Batters 



PLAIN GRIDDLE CAKES 

Vz t. soda, 1 c. sour milk, (scant) 

1 c. flour, 1 T. shortening, 

% t. salt, 1 egg, yellov/ and white beaten 

separately. 

Sift the dry ingredient|S. Beat the egg yolk, add the milk and stir it 
in gradually to make a smooth batter. Add shortening melted. If not 
thin enough use more milk. Fold in beaten egg, white last. 

Pour the cakes on the griddle from the end of a large spoon. When 
the cakes arc full of bubbles, turn with a broad knife, and brown on the 
other side. 

BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES 

iy2 c. fine bread crumbs, 2 eggs, 

11/^ c. hot milk, Yz c. flour, . 

2 T. butter, 1/2 t. salt, 

3 V2 t. baking powder. 

Mix in the order given. 1 c. any cooked cereal may be used instead 
of bread crumbs. 

POTATO GRIDDLE CAKES 

12 good sized potatoes, ^ t. salt, 

6 T. flour, 2 eggs, 

1 t. baking powder, 2 c. scalded milk. 

Pare and chop the potatoes into a little cold water. Strain them 
and pour on the scalded milk. Stir in the eggs, salt and flour, into which 
baking powder has been mixed. Add a teaspoonful of onion juice, or a 
little chopped onion, and bake like ordinary cakes. 

WAFFLES 

% t. salt, 2 eggs, yolks and whites beaten 

1 T. melted butter, ' separately, 

1 pt. flour, 1 c. milk. 

3 t. baking powder, 

Mix in the order given and bake at once. If the batter is too stiff 
more milk may be used. 

SUGAR SYRUP 

2 c. sugar, 1 c. water, (scant). 

Boil till clear, do not stir after the sugar and water are mixed. Cool 
and serve with griddle cakes. 

32 



Bread 



Yeast is a plant, the small invisible germs of which are floating in 
tlie air. Yeast grows in sprouting grain. Yeast belongs to the same 
family as the mushroom and consists of little cells. Hot water kills the 
thousands of plants found in compressed yeast. Cold water chills the 
yeast. Luke warm liquids should be used. 

When the yeast plant grows it causes fermentation, which changes 
some of the starch into sugar and then some of the sugar into alcohol 
and carbon-dioxide and carbonated gas. This carbon-dioxide raises the 
dough. If it rises too long it will make the bread sour. 

Dough is made light in five ways: 

1. By the use of. yeast. 

2. By the use of baking powder. 

3. (a) By the use of soda and molasses, 
(b) By the use of soda and sour milk. 

4. By beating air into a mixture and by steam. 

5. By use of carbonate of ammonia. 



BREAD 

2 c. luke warm liquid, i/^ cake compressed yeast, 

2 t. salt, l^ c. luke warm water, 

2. t. sugar, 6 to GYz c. flour. , 

(With water use 1 T. lard or butter.) 

Put the liquid, salt, sugar and shortening into a bowl; add the yeast, 
then the flour gradually. AVhen stiff enough to handle, turn the dough 
out on a floured board and knead until soft and elastic. Put it back into 
the bowl, moisten, cover and let it rise in a warm place imtil double ilts 
])ulk, cut down, then divide into loaves or shape into biscuits. Allow 
these to rise in the pan in which they are to be baked. Cover the bread 
and again allow it to double in bulk, then bake. 

If set in day time, use 1 cake yeast. This recipe makes two loaves. 
If set at night, use % cake yeast. 



BREAD BAKING 

Loaves of bread should be baked 1 hr. or more in a hot oven. Tlie 
lieat of the oven should be increased slightly during the first 20 m. and 
should be kept even for 20 m. and should decrease during last 20 m. 

When baked the loaves should be cooled, uncovered on a wire rack. 

Bread should be kept in a clean tin box and not exposed to moisture. 

33 



BREAD AND OTHER COOKED FOODS. 

While cooling, newly baked bread should be lightly covered with a 
clean cloth or paper to prevent mold germs and dust from falling upon it, 
but should not be tightly wrapped in a thick cloth as is the practice in 
some households, for unless it is aired when taken from the oven, it is 
likely to become "soggy" and damp and thus offers an excellent medium 
for cultivation of molds. When perfectly cold the bread should be placed 
in a close receptacle that has been thoroughly scalded and aired. If 
bread is to be kept for more than two or three days in damp, hot weather, 
the jar or box should be taken out and sunned for a short time now and 
then, and again scalded and dried. On no account should portions of a 
former baking be stored with a new batch. 

Cake and cookies should be cooled after baking and kept in tin 
boxes or in earthenware jars, whicli, like bread boxes, should be often 
scalded and aired. Even if these foods are to be eaten at the next meal 
it is well to keep them in some such receptacle, as it insures protection 
from dust. A cake, pudding, or pie put out of a window uncovered to 
cool or in any other place where it is exposed to dust, and in summer 
also to flies, is something that no careful housewife would place on her 
table if she stopped to think how easily the food may be contaminated. — ■ 
Extract, Fanners Bulletin No. .^S9. 



34 



General Rules for Steaming 



See that the water is boiling in the kettle or steamer when the food 
is ready for cooking. Keep the water boiling constantly. Refill when 
necessary with boiling water. 

Do not jar the kettle. 

A mold or tightly covered tin can may be used; it should be thor- 
oughly greased and if it has no cover, a strong piece of oiled paper may 
be tied over the top; this should also be greased. It should be put into a 
steamer over boiling water, or on a rack in a kettle of boiling water. 

BOSTON BROWN BREAD, No. 1 

2 c. rye meal, 14 t. salt, 

1 c. corn meal, y^ c. molasses, 

% T. soda, 2 c. sour milk. 

Put into a tightly covered mould which has been greased. Cook over 
steam 3 hrs.. then dry in the oven a few minutes. 

BOSTON BROWN BREAD No. 2 

1 c. rye meal, 1 t. soda, 

] c. granulated corn meal, 1 t. salt, 

1 c. graham flour, % c. molasses, 

1 % c. sweet milk or same of warm water. 

Mix the dry ingredients and sift all together, add milk and molasses, 
and place in a covered, greased mould and steam 2% hrs. Or steam in 
small cups 1 lir. 

fill the cups or mould % full. 

BAKED BEANS 

1 qt. beans, 1 T. salt. 

1/^ lb. fat salt pork, 2 T. molasses, 

% t. mustard 1 c. boiling water. 

Pick beans over, cover with cold water mixed with a little soda and 
let soak over night. In the morning cover with fresli water, heat slowly 
and let cook just below the boiling point until the skins burst. This is 
best determined by taking a few on the tip of a spoon and blowing over 
them. If done the skins will burst. When done drain beans and put in 
pot. Scald pork, cut through rind in % in. strips, bury in beans leaving 
rind exposed. Mix mustard, salt, molasses and water, and pour over beans 
and add enough more water to cover them. Cover pot and bake slowly 
six or eight hrs. Uncover pot the last hr. so that pork will be brown and 
crisp. 

35 



Pastry 

(ieneral Rules. 

All of the materials must be as cool as possible. 

The shortening should not be cut very fine, if a flaky crust is desired. 

The dough should be mixed with a knife and not touched with the 
hands. It should be rolled on one side, using but little flour, The dough 
is rolled thin and baked until brown. 

Meat and oyster pies should be made without an undercrust. The 
crust should be cut in several places to allow the steam to escape. 

If an under crust is used, this crust may be baked on the outside of 
a tin plate, then filled. In this case the crust must be picked all over 
with a fork, so that it may keep its shape. 

If two crusts are used the lower one should be moistened around the 
edge with cold water, then a V^. in. strip of paste may be placed around 
the edge of the undercrust. This strip should also be moistened, and the 
uppercrust placed over the pie and pressed lightly around the edge. 

The paste may be made the day before using, then covered and 
placed on ice. It rolls more easily if placed on ice after mixing. 

PLAIN PASTRY 

1 %, c. pastry flour, i/4 t. salt, 

% or 1/^ c. shortening (lard and butter.) 
Ice water. 
Mix in the order given. 

APPLE PIE 
Wipe and cut tart apples into eighths, remove the cores and skins. 
Vary the amount of sugar according to the acidity of the apples, using 2 
T. or more for an apple. If not juicy, add from % T. to 1 T. water ac- 
cording to the size of the apple. 

The apples may be flavored with lemon juice, cinnamon or nutmeg, 
and should be dotted with bits of butter. 

Bake until the apples are soft and the crust is brown. 
Apple sauce may be used on a baked crust. 

LEMON PIE 

3 T. cornstarch, juice and rind 1 lemon 

1 c. sugar, 4 t. butter, 

1 c. boiling water, 4 t. powdered sugar. 

2 eggs. 
Beat yolks of eggs until light. ]\lix the sugar and cornstarch to- 
gether. Add the boiling water slowly. Cook 20 m., stirring frequently, 
add the mixture to the egg, add butter and lemon, and cook until the egg 
thickens. When mixture is cool, place it in a baked crust. Cover with a 
meringue, and bake until a delicate brown. 

SHORT PASTE 

1 hp. c. flour, 4 T. lard, 

1^ t. salt, 4 T. butter. 

Have all the material ice cold. Chop the shortening in the flour till 
the size of peas and beans. Toss lightly with a knife, adding enough ice 
water to about half wet the flour. Turn out on a smooth cold board. 
Gather with the knife into a square pile. Then pound lightly with rolling 
pin till well flattened. Roll in an oblong piece Vi in. thick; fold in thirds 
and roll again; repeat, and after the third rolling it will usually be suffi- 
ciently compact to roll thin enough to line a plate. This paste improves 
by standing half an hour or mora on the ice. Suffcient for 1 pie. 

36 



Souffles 



APPLE SOUFFLE. 

Pass through a sieve four tart apples which have been pared, cored 
and cooked in just enough water to keep from burning. Sift together 
four level tablespoons cornstarch and one level tablespoon flour 
dissolved in four tablespoons cold water. l\Telt one tablespoon butter 
with one-fourth teaspoon salt and turn in one cup boiling water and add 
flour and cornstarch. Sweeten to taste one cup hot pulp and flavor 
with one teaspoon lemon juice. Remove from fire and stir thoroughly. 
Add beaten yolks of three eggs and white beaten to stiff froth. Pour 
into shallow baking dish and bake in moderately hot oven until puffed 
and brown. 



SAI/T CODFISH SOUFFLE. 

One cupful of shredded codfish, two tablespoonfuls of flour, two 
tablespoonfuls of butter, a fourth of a teaspoon of pepper, three eggs, one 
teaspoonful of minced parsley, two cupfuls of milk, one cupful of soft 
bread crumbs, and a fourth of a teaspoonful of onion juice. 

Make as white sauce of the butter, flour and milk. Freshen the 
codfish, rinse well, then add to sauce with the seasoning and crumbs; 
separate the eggs and beat the yolks light, stir them into the mixture, 
fold in the whites beaten stiff and pour all into a buttered baking dish. 
Surround with hot water and bake iiO m. in a rather slow oven. Serve 
the souffle at once in the dish in which it is baked. 



SMOKED SALMON CHARTREUSE. 

One and a fourth cupfuls of rice, two teaspoonfuls of curry powder, 
two tablespoonfuls of butter, two and a half cupfuls of flaked smoked 
salmon, one teaspoonful of lemon juice, an eighth of a teaspoonful of 
pepper, half teaspoonful of onion juice, three-quarter cupful of milk, two 
tablespoonfuls of flour and two tablespoonfuls of butter. 

Soak the salmon to remove the excessive salt. Boil the rice as usual 
and stir lightly into it the curry powder creamed with two tablespoonfuls 
of the butter. Make a thick sauce of the butter, flour and milk and add 
the fish, lemon juice, pepper and onion juice. Line a well buttered bread 
tin with the rice. Pack in the fish mixture, put in a layer of the rice 
over the top, and steam or bake in a pan of water in the oven for thirty 
minutes. Serve with creamed peas. 

37 



Cookies 



ORANGE COOKTEvS. 

4 T. butter, 4 egg yolks, 

1 c. sugar, 2 T. Orange juice, 

2 c. flour, 2 T. baking powder, 
Grated rind % orange More flour if needed. 

Cream butter, add sugar and orange rind gradually, add egg yolks 
and sift flour and baking powder three times and add alternately with 
water and oi'ange juice. Mix stiff and roll and cut. Bake 8 to 1 niin. 
in hot oven. 



FlU IT COOKIES. 

1 1/4 c. sugar, 1 c. seedless raisins, 

2 eggs, 2 T. milk (sweet) 

l^ c. shortening, 2 t. baking powder, 

1 t. cinnamon. Nutmeg to taste, 

1 t. cloves. Flour to make a stiff dough. 
Mix as in sugar cookies. 



PEANUT COOKIES. 

2 T. butter, i/4 t. salt, 

1/4 c. sugar, 1/^ c. flour, 

1 egg, 2 T. milk, 

1 t. baking powder, i/^ c. finely chopped peanuts, 

l^ t. lemon juice. 

Cream the butter, add sugar and egg well beaten. Mix and sift dry 
ingredients; add to first mixture, then add milk, peanuts and leraon juice. 
Drop from a teaspoon on an unbuttered sheet 1 inch apart. Bake 1 2 to 
15 min. in slow oven. This recipe makes 24 cookies. 



38 



Rules for Cake Making 



Mrs. Woorti'ow Wilson. 



Use the best materials. Never consider •'cooking-butter" nor second 
rate eggs; always use table butter and the verj^ best of extra fresh eggs. 
For cold storage products will make poor cake no matter how skilful 
is the manipulating. 

Use what is known as "foft A" sugar. This is better for cake than 
the regular granulated sugar. 

When measuring stint your cups of sugar, never heap them; too 
much sugar coarsens the grain of cake. IMeasure baking powder in 
slightly rounded spoonfuls never heaped. Use sour milk and soda in 
place of baking powder when you can. 

Never, never guess at measurements. Be exact in proportions, and 
follow directions Implicitly. 

Use rich milk, half cream if you can. This produces a rich cake. 

Keep your batter thin. Always bear this In mind above all things; 
a thick batter can never bake into a successful cake. So stint your flour 
always. One must use one's judgment here for flours differ in heaviness 
and eggs in size, so one must bear in mind to keep the batter thin and 
and stint the flour when necessary. 

Have everything ready at hand before you begin to mix the cake, for 
once it is started the work should go ahead swiftly and the cake should 
go into the oven quickly unless it is one of the recipes that call for 
'the "ripening" process. 

Use a wooden paddle for beating the cake. 

Sift your flour twice over. There is more in this little act than one 
would ever dream. 

Paper your pans and butter your paper well, never use lard or drip- 
pings. Cake demands the best of everything straight through. 

Have your oven just right. Learn what a "cake oven" is and then 
see that you have it." 

— Extract, National Food Magazhte. 



39 



Cakes Without Butter 



SPONGE CAKE 



Yolks 6 eggs, Grated rind % lemon, 

1 c. sugar. Whites 6 eggs, 

1 T. lemon juice, 1 c. flour. 

Beat yolks until thick and lemon colored, add sugar gradually, and 
continue beating. Add lemon juice, rind and whites of eggs beaten until 
stiff and dry. When whites are partially mixed with yolks, carefully cut 
and fold in flour, mixed and sifted with salt. Bake in an unbuttered pan, 
in a slow oven for 1 lir. 

SPONGE JELLY ROLL 

5 eggs, 1 c. of sugar, 

The grated rind of 1 lemon 1 c. of flour, 

2 T. of lemon juice. Fruit jelly. 

Beat the yolks of the eggs until very thick; add the sugar gradually, 
then the lemon rind and juice; fold in half the whites of the eggs beaten 
dry, then half the flour, the half of the whites of the eggs and the other 
half of the flour. Bake in a large dripping pan about 15m.; turn from 
the pan onto a cloth, trim the edges of the cake, spread the bottom of the 
cake (the top as it lies on the cloth ) with the jelly; then roll closely, wrap 
in the cloth and set aside to cool. 

QUICK SPONGE CKEAM CAKE. 

Put 2 eggs and % of a c. of sugar into a mixing bowl and beat with 
the egg beater till very light. Add 5 T. of rapidily boiling water and 
beat again. Mix 1 c. of sifted flour with 2 level t. of baking powder and 
% t. of salt. Stir this into the eggs quickly, add 1 t. of lemon or vanilla 
and when well mixed, turn at once into 2 well greased jelly cake pans 
and bake about 12 m. in a moderate oven. Reduce the heat as soon 
as well risen, and at the last turn out the burner, and remove the cake 
when firm. Whip 1 c. of thick cream till stiff, adding powdered sugar 
till sweet to taste, and flavor with vanilla. Put part of it on the bottom 
of one cake lay the other cake on with the top up and put the remainder 
of the cream on by forcing it through a pastry tube in a bag in any 
fanciful design. 

ANGEL CAKE. 

Whites of 8 eggs, % c flour, 

1 t. cream of tartar, i/4 t. salt, 

1 c. sugar, % t. vanilla. 

Beat whites of eggs until frothy; add cream of tartar and continue 
beating until eggs are stiff; then add sugar gradually. Fold in flour 
mixed with salt and sifted four times; add vanilla. Bake 45 m. to 1 hr. 
in an unbuttered angel cake pan. After cake has risen and begins to 
brown cover with a buttered paper. 

40 



Cakes With Butter 



The oven must be ready for baking, the pans thoroughly greased with 
the same kind of fat used in the mixture. 

Sift flour before measuring; pastry flour should be used. The flour 
and baking powder must be mixed and sifted several times, and if spiceis 
are used they should be sifted with the flour. Powdered or finely granu- 
lated sugar may be used. 

Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually. The yolks and whites of 
the eggs should be beaten separately, and the yolks added to the butter 
and sugar. The bowl in which they were beaten should be rinsed with 
the milk. The milk and flour are added alternately, then the flavoring 
and the whites of the eggs. When fruit is used save a little flour to cover 
it and add just before the whites of the eggs. 

Bake the cake from 20-40 m., or until it shrinks from the sides of 
the pan. When taken from oven, allow it to remain in the pan about 3 m. 

Raisins quartered and seeded and sprinkled with flour may be added 
to the cake just before baking. 

QtTTCK CAKE 

% c. soft butter, 1% c. brown sugar, 2 eggs, V2 c milk, 1 % c. flour, 3 
t. baking powder, % t. cinnamon, % t. grated nutmeg, 1 i/4 lb. dates, 
stoned and finely chopped. 

Put all ingredients in a bowl together and beat thoroughly for 3 or 4 
m. Bake in lined loaf pan 35 to 40 m. Do not attempt to add the in^- 
gredients separately if you wish a satisfactory cake. Occasionally the 
housekeeper has a few raisins, or nuts, or figs, "left over" from other 
preparations. These she may combine and use instead of the dates, but 
do not change the proportion. That should be half a pound. If figs 
should be used put them through the chopper. This mixture may be 
baked in gem pans and served hot, as a plum or fruit pudding, with hard 
or other sauce, to taste. 

FIG LAYER CAKE 

Cream 1 c. of sugar with % c. of butter until very light. Separate 
3 eggs and add the yolks, 1 at a time, beating in each one thoroughdy. 
Then add % c. of milk, 1 t. of vanilla, 2 c. of pastry flour sifted with 2 
t. of baking powder. Beat the batter until light and smooth, fold In 
whites beaten light. Bake in layer cake tins in a moderately quick oven 
20 to 30 min. Use a fig paste filling between the layers. 

FIG FILLING 

1 lb. of figs put through the chopper. Put in a granite sauce pan 
with 1 c. of boiling water, i/^ c. of sugar and juice of i/^ a lemon. Plaaa 
on asbestos mat over the simmering burner and cook slowly until it be- 
comes a smooth paste. Set aside to cool before using. 

GOLD CAKE 

V2 c. butter, 1 c. sugar, 1 vv'hole egg, 4 egg yolks, V.\ t. lemon, l{> t. 
vanilla, % t. almond, % c. milk, 1% c. flour, 2 t. baking powder. 

Cream the butter and add sugar gradually. Beat whole eggs and 
yolks until light. Add extracts 1 at a time as measured and beat in well. 
Alternate milk and flour, sifted with baking powder, and beat quickly. 
Bake in oblong loaf pan in moderate oven 25 to 35 minutes. 

RICH COFFEE CAKE 

1 c. butter, 2 c. sugar, 4 eggs, 2 T. molasses, 1 c. boiled coffee, 3 % 
c. flour, 5 level t. baking powder, 1 t. cinnamon, % t. cloves, 14 t. mace, 
V2 t. allspice, % c. raisins, seeded and cut in pieces, % c. currants, y^ c. 
citron thinly sliced, 2 T. brandy. Bake gently in brick loaf pans. 

41 



Fish 



Fish may be scaled much easiei' if dipped into boiling water for a 
minute. 

Salt fish are quickest and best freshened by soaking in sour milk. 

Fish must be perfectly fresh and should be kept in a cool place until 
cooked. Do not put in refrigerator on account of odor. T'lie flesh should 
be firm and the eyes bright. The inside and the outside of tlie fish should 
be thoroughly washed in cold water. The head and tail may be removed. 
Dry fish need butter rubbed over them before broiling. 

When fish is cooked the flesh separates from the bone. It should be 
served hot, with sauce or garnished with lemon, hard-cooked eggs or 
parsley. 

Cold cooked fish may be used in various ways, as creamed, scal- 
loped, etc. 



broiIjED fish 

Sear the flesh side first, then turn over a minute. The length of time 
for cooking depends upon the thickness of the fish. Season with butter, 
salt and pepper, and garnish. 



BAKED FISH 

Sprinkle the fish with salt and fill with stuffing, stew and skewer the 
edges together. Cut gasheis on each side across the fish and put strips 
of salt pork Into them. Grease the baking sheet and place the fish on it, 
dredge with flour, salt and pepper, put the sheet into a baking pan with 
pieces of pork fat under the fish. Baste every 10 m. Serve with a 
sauce. Bake a 1 lb. fish y^ hr. 



STUFFING FOR BAKED FISH 

1 c. fine bread or cracker 2 t. chopped pickles, 

crumbs, % t. pepper, 

1 t. chopped onion or juice, 1 t. lemon juice, 

% t. salt, % c. melted butter. 

yz t. chopped parsley. 

Milk or water to moisten. 

Mix ingredients thoroughly. Use enough liquid to make the stuffing 
stick together. 

42 



FISH COOKED IN WATER 

Steam fish over gently boiling water, or place it in a piece of muslin, 
sew or tie the edges together, and put the fish into boiling water; boil 5 
m., then add 1 T. salt and cook at a lower temperature until done. Serve 
with a sauce. 



DRAWN BUTTER SAUCE 

2 c. boiling water, milk or 4 T. flour, 

lish stock, 1^ t. salt, 

8 T. butter, Vs t. pepper. 

Melt 4 T. butter into a sauce pan, add the flour and when bubbling, 
add the boiling liquid, the remainder of the butter in small pieces, and 
the salt and pepper. Boil 5 m. and serve. 

1 T. of lemon juice may be added if desired, or 2 T. of chopped 
pickle. 



OYSTER STEW. 

Wash 1 pt. oysters by adding i/4 c. cold water. Pick over the oysters. 
Scald 1 pt. milk, add 1 T. butter, salt and pepper. Add the oysters and 
cook until plump and the edges curl. They should not be allowed to boil. 



43 



Cooking in Deep Fat 



General Rules. 



The fat used for cooking may be olive oil, cottonseed oil, cottolene, 
bee^ drippings, lard, or a mixture of several fats. 

Egg on inside or outside of mixture prevents absorbtion of fat. 

Place the articles to be cooked in a bath of the fat, deep enough to 
float them. The kettle should be of iron; a frying basket should be used. 

Foods already cooked or needing little cooking, require a higher tem- 
perature than batters. The temperature of the fat for oysters, cioquettes, 
fish balls, etc., may be tested by browning a cube of bread while count- 
ing forty. Counting sixty while bread browns gives the right temperature 
for all batters. 

All the articles cooked must be drained on unglazed brown paper. 

When one quantity of food has been taken from the fat, the fat must 
be reheated and tested before a second quantity is put in. 

In the absence of a frying basket, a wire -spoon may be used to re- 
move the food from the fat. 

Fat which has been used for frying, should be cooled and clarified by 
cooking a few slices of raw potato in it for 10 m.; strain through muslin 
and when cold cover. Fat may be used several times for frying and then 
be made into soap. 

CREAMED CODFISH 

Cut the salt codfish in %-in. slices across the grain, and soak in luke- 
warm water, the time depending upon the saltiness and hardness of the 
fish. Drain and add 1 c. thin, white sauce. Add 1 beaten egg just before 
sending to the table. Garnish with hard-cooked eggs. 

CODFISH BALLS. 

IVi c. potatoes, 1 egg, 

1 c. salt cod fish, % T. butter, 

i/s t. pepper. 

Wash the fish in cold water and break into small pieces; wash and 
pare the potatoes and cut in pieces. Cook the fish and potatoes together 
in boiling water until the potatoes are soft; drain'and shake over the fire 
until dry, mash with a wire potato masher, add the beaten egg, butter 
and pepper, add more salt if needed, and beat until light. Take up the 
mixture by spoonfuls, mould slightly, and slip them into the fat. Fry 1 
m., or until brown. 

If codfish balls break, add a little more egg. 

FRENCH FRIED POTATOES 

Wash and pare small potatoes, cut in eighths, lengthwise, and soak 
in cold water. Take from water, dry between towels, and fry in deep fati. 
Drain on brown paper and sprinkle with salt. Care must be taken that 
fat is not too hot, as potatoes must be cooked as well as browned. 

44 



Directions for Frying 



The fat should be smoking hot. Try it witli a small cube of bread. 
Count sixty; if the bread browns the fat is hot enough. Drain food on 
soft paper or through a wire strainer, after frying". 

Strain the fat carefully after using. 

As food cools the fat, put in only a few pieces at a time. 

DOUGHNUTS 

1 pt flour, VzC sugar, 

1 t. salt, 4 t. baking powder, 
1/4 t. cinnamon, 2 eggs, 

2 t. butter, % c. milk. 

Cream butter and sugar. Add beaten egg, sift salt, cinnamon and 
baking powder with % the flour. Add to batter alternate with the milk. 
Add more flour to make dough stiff enough to roll. 

In doughs for cookies and doughnuts always sift baking powder with 
one half of flour. 

FISH COOKED IN FAT 

Season with salt and pepper and cover with equal amounts of corn 
meal and flour, or crumbs and egg. Cook in deep fat or saute. Drain 
on paper. 

FIIIED l{\E MUFFINS 

% c. rye meal. 1 T. sugar, 

% c. white flour, % t. salt, 

2 t. baking powder, 1 egg. 

% c. milk. 

Mix in the order given and drop from a small tablespoon into hot 
fat. Cook until muffin will not stick when tried with a toothpick. 

APPLE FRITTERS 

1% c. flour, 1/4 t. salt, 

2 t. baking powder, • % c milk. 

1 egg, 

Mix and sift dry ingredients, add milk gradually and egg well beaten; 
pare, core and cut two medium sized sour apples into eighths, then cut 
eighths in slices and stir into batter. Drop by spoonfuls and fry in deep 
fat. Drain on brown paper and sprinkle with powdered sugar. Bananas, 
oranges, cherries, fresh peaches, cooked cauliflower or celery may be 
cut in pieces, dipped in batter and fried same as other fritters. Canned 
fruits may be used, after draining from their syrup. 

45 



Soups Without Meat 



GENERAL RULES 

Soups witlioiit meat are made from vegetables and fish. The pulp may 
be strained out or not as desired and combined with either milk or water. 
These soups are thickened by using butter and flour; this prevents 
a separation of the thicker and thinner parts of the soup; the butter 
should be heated until it bubbles, the flour and seasoning added and 
enough of the hot liquid to make a smooth sauce thin enough to pour 
easily; this should be poured into the rest of the hot liquid and cooked in 
a double boiler until the soup is of the proper consistency. 

Soda is used in soups made of dried peas and beans to soften the 
casein; soda is used in tomatoes to neutralize the acid. 

These soups must be served as soon as cooked, and in hot dishes. 
Crisp crackers, croutons or soup sticks, may be served with them. 

f Tomato Soup. 
Make Thick White Sauce for 1 Asparagus Soup. 

] Spinach Soup. 

L and all other watery Vegetables. 
t Potato Soup. 
Make a Thin White Sauce for ^ Pea Soup. 

I Bean Soup, etc. 

CREAM OF POTATO SOUP 

2 potatoes, 1 pt. milk, 

1 t. salt, 1 spk. white pepper, 

1 T. butter 1 small slice onion, 

1 T. flour, 1 t. parsley. 

Cook the potatoes till very soft. Scald the milk and onion in a 
double boiler. Drain the Potatoes; add the milk, having removed the 
onion. Rub through a strainer and put back into double boiler over the 
fire. Melt the butter or dripping, add the flour, stirring all the time. 
Pour some of the hot soup over the thickening, then return to the boiler 
and cook 5 m. Add 1 t. finely chopped parsley and serve very hot. If 
the soup be too thick, add hot water or milk. 

CREAM OF CORN SOUP. 

1 can corn, 4 T. butter, 

1 pt. water, 1 slice onion, 

1 qt. hot milk, 4 T. flour, 

2 t. salt, V4: t. white pepper. 

Heat the milk and onion, then remove the onion. Chop the corn 
and cook it with water 20 m. Melt the butter, add the flour, and when 
thoroughly mixed, add the milk gradually, then cook till slightly thick- 
ened. Add this mixture to the corn and season with salt and pepper. If 
you wish rub the corn through a sieve. Serve hot. 

CREAM OF TOiMATO SOU I* 

1 pt. tomato, ■ 4 T. butter, 

1 qt. hot milk, 1 slice onion, 

2 t. salt. 4 T. flour. 
1/4 t. white pepper. 

Heat the milk and onion, then remove onion. Melt the butter, add 
the flour, and when thoroughly mixed, add the milk gradually, then cook 
till slightly thickened. Add strained tomato, season and serve. 

Asparagus, spinach, cauliflower and celery may be prepared the same 
way. 

CRISP CRACKERS 

Brown crackers in a hot oven. They may be buttered before brown- 
ing if desired. 

46 



Cuts of Meat 



'IMie methods of ciittiny' sides of ])eef, veal, mutton, and pork 
into parts, and the terms usetl for tln^ ditTerent "cuts," as these 
parts are commonly called. \'ary in different localities. The analyses 
hero r.eported apply to cuts as indicated by the following diagrams. 
These show the positions of the different cuts, both in the live animal 
and in the dressed carcass as found in the markets. The lines of 
division l)etween the different cuts will vary slightly, according to 
the usage of the local nuirket, even where the general method of 
cutting is as here indicated. The names of the same cuts likewise 
vary in different parts of the country. 

CUTS OF BEEF. 

The general method of cutting u[) a side of beef is illustrated 
in fig. 1, which shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal 
and in a dressed side. The neck piece is frequently cut so as to 
include more of the chuck than is rei)resented by the diagrams. The 
shoulder clod is usually cut Avithout bone, while the shoulder (not 
indicated in diagram) would include more or less of the shoulder 
blade and of the upper end of the fore shank. Shoulder steak is 
cut from the chuck. In many localities the plate is made to include 
all the parts of the foreqiuirter designated on the diagrams as 
l)risket, cross-ribs, plate and navel, and different portions of the 
plate, as thus cut, are spoken of as the "brisket end of plate" ant] 
"navel end of plate." This part of the aninuil is largely used for 
coming. The ribs are frequently divided into first, second, and third 
cuts, the latter lying nearest the chuck and being slightly 
less desirable than the fornuM-. The chuck is sometimes sub- 
divided in a similar manner, the third cut of the chuck being 
nearest the neck. The names api)lied to diffei'enf portions of the loin 
vary considerably in different localities. The part nearest the ribs 
is frequently called "small end of loin" or "short steak." The 
other end of the loin is called "hip sirloin" or "sirloin." Between 
the short and the sirloin is a portion (juite generally called the 
"tenderloin." for the reason that the real tenderloin, the very 
tender strip of meat lying inside the loin, is found most fully 
developed in this cut. Porterhouse steak is a term most frequently 
applied to either the short steak or the tenderloin. It is not uncom- 
mon to find the fiaid\ cut so ms to include nu)re of the loin than is 
indicated in the figures, in which case the upper portion is called 
"flank steak." The larger part of the flank is, however, very 
frequently corned, as is also the case with the rump. In some 
markets the rump is cut so as to include a portion of the loin, which 
is then sold as "runq) steak." The [)ortion of the round on the 

47 



inside of the leg is regarded ns more tender than that on the outside 
and is frequently preferred to the latter. As the leg lies upon the 




1. Neck. 

2. Chuck. 
?,. Ribs. 

4. Shoulder clod. 

5. Fore shank, 
(i. Brisket. 

7. Cross ribs. 

8. Plate. 
r». Navel. 

10. Loin. 

11. Flank. 

12. Rump. 
IS. Round. 

14. Second cut round. 

15. Hind shank. 



'//nik*- 




Fig. l~Diagrams of cuts of beef. 



])utcher's table this inside of the round is usually on the upper, oi 
top side, and is therefore called "top round." Occasionally the 
plate is called the "rattle." 

48 



CUTS OF VEAL. 

The iiu'thotl of ciittiiig up a side of veal diit'ers considerably 
from that employed Mith beef. This is illustrated by fig. 2, which 
shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed 
side. The chuck is much smaller in proportion, and frequently no 
distinction is made betAveen the chuck and the neck. The chuck is 
often cut so as to include a considerable of the portion here desig- 




ll'llll w 



1. Neck. 


6. Ribs. 


2. Chuck. 


7. Loin. 


.^. Shoulder. 


S. Flank. 


4. Forcshank. 


9. Leg. 


5. Breast. 


10. Hind shank 




Fig. 2.— Diagrams of cuts of veal. 



nated as shoulder, following more nearly the method adopted for 
subdividing beef. The shoulder of veal as here indicated includes, 
besides the portion corresponding to the shoulder in beef, the larger 
part of what is here classed as chuck in the adult animal. The 
under part of the forequarter, corresponding to the plate in the 
beef, is often designated as breast in the veal. The part of the veal 
corresponding to the rump of beef is here included with the loin, 
but is often cut to form part of the leg. In many localities the fore 
and hind shanks of veal are called the ''knuckles." 



49 



CUTS OF LAMB AND MUTTON. 

Fig. 8 shows the relative position of the cuts in a dressed side 
of mutton or lanib and in a live animal. The cuts in a side of land) 
and mutton number but six, three in each quarter. The chuck 
includes the ribs as far as the end of the shoulder blades, beyond 
which comes the lo'in. The flank is made to include all the under 
side of the animal. Some butchers, hoAvever, make a larger number 
of cuts in the forequarter, including a portion of the cuts marked 




1. Neck. 

2. Chuck. 

■A. Shoulder. 
i. Flank, 
ft. Loin. 
6. Leg. 




Fig. 



Diagrams of cuts of lamb and mutton. 



"loin" and "chuck" in fig. 3, to make a cut designated as "rib," 
and a portion of the "flank" and "shoulder" to make a cut desig- 
nated as "brisket." The term "chops" is ordinarily used to desig- 
nate portions of either the loin, ribs, chuck or shoulder, which are 
either cut or "chopped" by the butcher into pieces suitable for 
frying or broiling. The chuck and ribs are sometimes called the 
"rack." 



5U 



CUTS OF PORK. 

The method of cutting up a side of pork differs considerably 
from that employed with other meats. A large portion of the 
carcass of a dressed pig consists of almost clear fat. This furnishes 
the cuts which are used for "salt pork" and bacon. Fig. 4 illus- 
trates a common method of cutting up pork, showing the relative 
position of the cuts in the animal and in the dressed side. The cut 
designated as "back cut" is almost clear fat and is used for salting 
and pickling. The "middle cut" is the portion quite generally used 
for bacon and for "lean ends" salt pork. The belly is salted or 
pickled or may be made into sausages. 

Beneath the "back cut" are the ribs and loin, from which are 
olitained "spareribs," "chops," and roasting pieces, here designated 
l)y dotted lines. The hams and shoulders are more frequently cured, 
l)ut are also sold fresh as pork "steak." The tenderloin proper 
is a comparatively lean and very small strip of meat lying under 





1. Head. 

2. Shoulder. 

3. Back. 

i. Middle cut. 
h. Belly, 
fi. Ham. 
7. Ribs. 
H. Loin. 

Fig. 4.— Diagrams of cuts of Pork. 



the bones of the loin and usually weighing a fraction of a pound. 
Some fat is usually trimmed off from the hams and shoulders, which 
is called "ham and shoulder fat," and is often used for sausages, etc. 
What is called "leaf lard," at least in some localities, comes from 
the inside of the back. It is the kidney fat. 

As stated above, cuts as shown in the diagrams herewith corre- 
spond to those of which analyses are reported in the table beyond, 
but do not attempt to show the different methods of cutting followed 
in markes in different parts of the United States. 

— Extract, Farmers Bulletin No. 3J. 

51 



TABLE SHOWING THE DIGESTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF 

MEATS. 



Kind of Meat 



Method of Cooking 



Turkey, domostic Koa.sti'd 

Beef, fresh, lean, rare Roasted 

Beefsteak Broiled 

Beef and salt only Broiled 

Beef with mustard Broiled 

Beef Fried . 

Beef, old, hard Broiled 

Pork, steak Broiled 

Pork, fat and lean Roasted 

Pork, salted P.oiled 

I'ork, reeently salted Tried . 

Pork, reeently salted Broiled 

Pork, lecently salted Raw . . 

Pork, recently salted Stewed 

Mutton, fresh Roasted 

Mutton, fresh Broiled 

'N'eal, fi'esh Broiled 

Veal, fresh Fried . , 

Fowls, domestic Boiled 

Fowls, domestic Roasted 



Mean 
Chymi 



time of 
fication 

H. M. 

2 :30 
.", :00 
.3:?,0 

2 :4.-) 

:; :()() 

4:00 
4 :ir, 
:i :1." 
.-) :ir. 
4 :;?0 
4 il.") 
y :15 
.•'. :00 

3 :00 
;5 -.15 

3 :00 

4 :00 
4 :30 
4:00 
4:00 



Natiotiitl Food MutjaHnc. 



SOUP — 

Hind Shank. 
Fore Shank. 



MEAT CUTS AND THEIIl USES. 

Neck and Tail. 



STEWS — 

Brisket. 

Chuck. 

Flank. 



Shoulder. 

Neck. 

Plate. 



liOASTS — 

Rump. 
Chuck Ribs. 



Prime Ribs. 



STEAKS — 

Round. 
Porter-house. 



Sirloin. 



52 



Sauted Meats 



HA3rBURG STEAK. 

Chop fine one pound of lean beef, with two ounces of beef suet, add 
a few drops of onion juice if liked. Shape into small flat cakes 1 inch 
thick if liked rare, or i/4 inch thick if liked well done. 

Heat pan blue hot, grease lightly; add cakes, count 100, then turn 
and cook on the other side until brown. When well browned they are 
done if liked rare. Cook 10 minutes if liked well done. Salt, place on 
hot platter and dot with butter. 



REEF IjOAF. 

1 lb. uncooked beef, 2 T. bread crumbs, 

chopped fine, 1 t. lemon juice. 

Yolk of 1 egg, 1 t. salt, 

1 T. chopped parslej'', o dashes of black pepper. 

1 T. butter, 

V2 t. onion juice. 

Mix all the ingredients together, then form into a roll about six 
inches long; wrap in buttered paper; place in a baking pan and bake in 
a quick oven about 30 m.; baste every 5 m. with % of a cup of butter 
melted in one cup of boiling water; serve with brown mushroom sauce 
poured around it. 



PORK CHors. 

Wipe chops, place in a hot frying pan. When seared on one side, 
turn, season and cook slowly until tender and brown on both sides. 



TAN GRAVY. 

Pour off part of the fat, if there is too much in the pan. To 4 T. 
of fat add 2 T. flour, when bubbling add 1 c. of milk, stock or water. 
Cook until slightly tliickened. Season to taste with salt and serve. 



TOMATO SAUCE. 

1 c. tomato, 1/4 t. chopped onion, 

V2 c. water, 1 y^ bay leaf, 

1 t. salt, 2 T. butter, 

V2 doz. peppercorns, 2 T. flour. 
3 whole cloves. 

Cook first seven ingredients for 20 minutes. Strain. 
Melt butter, add flour and when bubbling" add liquid and stir until 
it thickens. Serve with boiled macaroni, with meats, eggs or fish. 

53 



Broiling 



BROILED STEAK. 

Wipe, trim off extra fat. Broil over a clear fire, turning every 2 
minutes. Cook 4 or 5 m. if liked rare; longer if well done. 
Place on a hot platter and season. 
Beef steak should be tender and cut 1 in. thick. 

PAN.BROILING 

Remove from the steak or chop extra fat, and the pink skin from 
mutton. Heat a frying pan very hot, and grease with very little fat. Put 
in the meat and cook 1 m.; turn it and brown the other side; then cook 
more slowly until done, 5 m., if liked rare. Stand chops on edge to brown 
the fat. Season and serve on a hot dish. 

ROUND STEAK. 

Have a slice of round steak % of an inch thick. Wipe and trim 
off extra fat. Heat an iron frying pan blue hot, grease lightly, and put 
steak into it. Count 60, turn and let brown on under side; when brown 
on both sides half cover with boiling water, cover frying pan closely with 
a heavy cover and let simmer for from 20 to 30 m. Uncover, season with 
2 T. butter, salt and pepper, and serve on a hot platter. 

ONIONS FOR STEAK. 

Allow 1 onion to a person. Remove skins and cut in thin slices 
across onion. Put fat from steak or 2 T. dripping in frying pan, when 
hot, add onions, cover and cook 15 min., or until tender and brown. Sea- 
son and serve over steak. 

BEEF BIRDS. 

Cut 1 lb. of round steak i/4 of an inch thick in four pieces. Flatten 
each piece and spread with 1 t. fat bacon chopped, % t. prepared mustard, 
% t. chopped onion, 1 spk. paprika. Roll each slice and fasten with 
either string or tooth picks. Brown each roll in fat or butter and add 
enough boiling water to cover. Simmer until nearly tender, then add salt 
according to taste and continue simmering until tender. Time required, 
21/2 to 3 hours. 

Before serving, remove fat and sprinkle % T. of flour over beef 
birds. Allow to cook a few minutes; strain gravy, remove strings and 
serve very hot. Veal may be used in the same way. It does not require 
as long cooking as beef. 

TO MAKE TENDER A TOUGH STEAK. 

To transform a tough piece of beef steak into a nutritious and 
tender one, by a method employed in many of the first class hotels and 
restaurants, proceed as follows: Into a deep platter put about three 
tablespoonfuls of vinegar and one of pure olive oil, and lay the steak 
on it several hours before it is to be used, turning it every hour. If the 
steak is to be used for breakfast an excellent plan is to fix it the previous 
night and just before going to bed turn it over and add a little more 
vinegar and oil if the mixture has all been absorbed. The steak should 
be cooked without wiping it and then seasoned with butter, pepper and 
salt and garnished with slices of lemon and parsley. 

54 



Ways of Cooking Meats 



Cooking is tlie art of preparing food by the aid of heat, for the 
nourishment of the human body. The principal ways of cooking are 
boiling, broiling, stewing, roasting, baking, frying, sauteing, braising, 
fricasseing and steaming. 

HOI LING: Cooking in boiling water. Boiling point, 212° P. 

IJKOllilNG: Cooking over a glowing fire. 

STEAMING: Cooking over boiling water. 

STEWING: Cooking for a long time in water below the boiling 
point. Simmering point, 185° F. 

ROASTING: Cooking before a glowing fire. 

IJAKING: Cooking in an oven. 

FKVIN(i: Cooking in hot fat, deep enough to cover article to be 
cooked. 

SAUTING: Cooking in a small quantity of fat. 

BRAISING: A combination of stewing and baking. 

FRICASSEING: A combination of frying and stewing. 



GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARING MEAT FOR THE TABLE. 

The advantages of variety in the methods of preparing and 
serving are to be considered even more seriously in the cooking of 
the cheaper cuts than in the cooking of the more expensive ones, 
and yet even in this connection it is a mistake to lose sight of the 
fact that, though there is a great variety of dishes, the processes 
involved are few in number. 

An experienced teacher of cooking, a woman who has made 
very valuable contributions to the art of cookery by showing that 
most of the numerous processes outlined and elaborately described 
in the cook books can be classified under a very few heads, says 
that she tries "to reduce the cooking of meat to its lowest terms 
and teach only three ways of cooking. The first is the application 
of intense heat to keep in the juices. This is suitable only for 
portions of clear meat where the fibers are tender. By the second 
method the meats are put in cold water and cooked at a low tempera- 
ture. This is suitable for bone, gristle, and the toughest portions 
of the meat, which for this purpose should be divided into small bits. 
The third is a combination of these two processes and consists of 
searing and then stewing the meat. This is suitable for halfway 
cuts, i. e., those that are neither tender nor very tough." The many 
varieties of meat dishes are usually only a matter of flavor and 
garnish. 

55 



In other words, of the three processes the first is the short 
method ; it aims to keep all the juices within the meat. The second 
is a very long method employed for the purpose of getting all or 
most of the juices out. The third is a combination of the two not 
so long as the second and yet requiring so much time that there is 
danger of the meat being rendered tasteless unless certain pre- 
cautions are taken such as searing in hot fat or plunging into boiling 
water. 

It is commonly said that the cooked meat fibers are harder or 
less tender than the raw, Avhicli seems a natural assumption since 
the meat protein, like egg albumen, is coagulated by heat, and 
furthermore, the water is forced out from the individual muscle 
fibers and they ar.e shortened and thickened by the application of 
heat. Apparently, however, such general deductions must be modi- 
fied on the basis of the experimental data obtained in Lehmann's 
laboratory, for he found marked difi^erences in this respect between 
the interior cuts of beef, of which tenderloin is a typical example, 
and exterior cuts such as flank. When beef flank was cooked by 
boiling for two hours, the toughness of the fibers greatly increased 
during the first half hour of the cooking period, and then diminished 
so that at the end of the cooking period the meat was found to be 
in about the same condition with respect to toughness or tenderness 
of the fibers as at the beginning. On the other hand, in the case of 
the tenderloin, there was a decrease in toughness of the fibers 
throughout the cooking period which was particularly marked in 
the first few minutes of cooking, and at the end of the cooking period 
the meat fibers were only half as tough as before cooking. 

A good idea of the changes which take place while meat is being 
cooked can be obtained by examining a piece of flesh which has been 
"cooked to pieces," as the saying goes. In this the muscular fibers 
may be seen completely separated one from another, showing that 
the connective tissue has been destroyed. It is also evident that the 
fibers themselves are of different texture from those in the raw meat. 
In preparing meat for the table it is usual to stop short of the point 
of disintegration, but while the long process of cooking is going on 
the connective tissue is gradually softening and the fibers are grad- 
ually changing in texture. The former is the thing to be especially 
desired, but the latter is not. For this reason it is necessary to keep 
the temperature below the boiling point and as low as is consistent 
with thorough cooking, for cooks seem agreed, as the result of 
experience shows, that slow gentle cooking results in better texture 
than is the case when meat is boiled rapidly. This is the philosophy 
that lies back of the simmering process. 



56 



UTILIZING THE FAT, BONE, AND TRIMMINGS IN MEATS, 
AND THE LEFT-OVER COLD MEATS. 

In the percentage of fat present in dilferent kinds and cuts of 
meat, a greater difference exists than in the percentage of proteids. 
The lowest percentage of fat shoAvn [in a test made] was 8.1 
per cent in the shank of beef; the highest was 32 per cent in the 
pork chops. The highest priced cuts, loin and ribs of beef, contain 
20 to 25 per cent. If the fat of the meat is not eaten at the table, 
and is not utilized otherAvise, a pecuniary loss results. If butter is 
the fat used in making crusts for meat pies, and in preparing the 
cheaper cuts, there is little economy involved ; the fats from other 
meat should therefore be saved, as they may be used in place of 
butter in such eases, as well as in preparing many other foods. The 
fat from sausage or from the soup kettle, or from a pot roast, w'hich 
is savory because it has been cooked with vegetables, is particularly 
acceptable. Sometimes savory vegetables, onion, or sweet herbs are 
added to fat when it is tried out to give it flavor. 

Some illustrations of methods of preparing such cooking fats 
follow : 

Trying Out Fat. 

A double boiler is the best utensil to use in trying out small portions 
of fat. There is no danger of burning the fat and the odor is much less 
noticeable than if it is heated in a dish set directly over the fire. 

Clarifying- Fat. 

Excepting where the purpose of clarifying fat is to remove flavors, a 
good method to follow is to pour boiling water over the fat, to boil thor- 
oughly, and then to set it aw^ay to cool. The cold fat may be removed in a 
solid cake and any impurities clinging to it may be scraped off, as they will 
be found at the bottom of the layer. By repeating this process two or 
three times a cake of clean, white fat may be obtained. 

A slight burned taste or similar objectionable flavors often can be 
removed from fat by means of potatoes. After melting the fat, put into it 
thick slices of raw potato; heat gradually. When the fat ceases to bubble 
and the potatoes are brown, strain through a cloth placed in a wire 
strainer. 

Savory Drippings. 

When rendering the drippings of fat meat, add a small onion (do not 
cut it), a few leaves of summer savory and thyme, a teaspoonful of salt, 
and a little pepper. This is enough for a pint of fat. Keep the drippings 
covered and in a cool place. 



Uses for Bones. 

Almost any meat bones can be used in soup making, and if the 
meat is not all removed from them the soup is better. But some 

57 



bones, especially the rib bones, if they have a little meat left on them, 
can be grilled or roasted into very palatable dishes. The "sparerib" 
of southern cooks is made of the rib bones from a roast of pork, and 
makes a favorite dish when well browned. The braised ribs of beef 
often served in high-class restaurants are made from the bones cut 
from rib roasts. In this connection it may be noted that many of the 
dishes popular in good hotels are made of portions of meat such as 
are frequently thrown away in private houses, but which with proper 
cooking and seasoning make attractive dishes and give most accept- 
able variety to the menu. An old recipe for ''broiled bones" directs 
that the bones (beef ribs or sirloin bones on which the meat is not 
left too thick in any part) be sprinkled with salt and pepper 
(Cayenne), and broiled over a clear fire until browned. Another 
example of the use of bones is boiled marrow bone. The bones are 
cut in convenient lengths, the ends covered with a little piece of 
dough over which a floured cloth is tied, and cooked in boiling water 
for two hours. After removing the cloth and dough, the bones are 
placed upright on toast and served. Prepared as above, the bones 
may also be baked in a deep dish. Marrow is sometimes removed 
from bones after cooking, seasoned, and served on toast. 

Trimmings from meat may be utilized in various "made dishes," 
of which examples will be given further on, or they can always be 
put to good use in the soup kettle. It is surprising how many 
economies may be practiced in such ways and also in the table use 
of left-over portions of cooked meat if attention is given to the 
matter. Many of the recipes given in this bulletin involve the use 
of such left-overs. Others will suggest themselves or may be found 
in all the usual cookery books. 



METHODS OF EXTENDING THE FLAVOR OF MEAT. 

Common household methods of extending the meat flavor 
through a considerable quantity of material which would otherwise 
be lacking in distinctive taste are to serve the meat with dumplings, 
generally in the dish with it, to combine the meat with crusts, as in 
meat pies or meat rolls, or to serve the meat on toast and biscuits. 
Borders of rice, hominy, or mashed potatoes are examples of the 
same principles applied in different ways. By serving some prepara- 
tion of flour, rice, hominy, or other food rich in starch Avith the 
meat we get a dish which in itself approaches nearer to the balanced 
ration than meat alone and one in which the meat flavor is extended 
through a large amount of the material. 

Throughout the bulletin the measurements given in the recipes 
call for a level spoonful or a level cupful, as the case may be. 



58 



USE OF DUMPLINGS AND SIMILAR PREPARATIONS. 

A number of recipes for meat dishes made with dumplings and 
similar preparations follow : 

Meat Stew with Dumplings, 
stew. 

5 pounds of a cheaper cut of beef. % onion, chopped. 

4 cups of potatoes cut into small 14 cup of flour. 

pieces. Salt and pepper. 

% cup each of turnips and carrots 

cut into %-inch cubes. 

Cut the meat into small pieces, removing the fat; try out the fat and 
brown the meat in it. When well browned, cover with boiling .water, boil 
for five minutes and then cook in a lower temperature until the meat is 
done. If tender, this will require about three hours on the stove or five 
hours in the fireless cooker. Add carrots, turnips, onions, pepper, and 
salt during the last hour of cooking, and the potatoes fifteen minutes 
before serving. Thicken with the flour diluted with cold water. Serve 
with dumplings (see below). If this dish is made in the fireless cooker, 
the mixture must be reheated when the vegetables are put in. Such a 
stew may also be made of mutton. If veal or pork is used the vegetables 
may be omitted or simply a little onion used. Sometimes for variety the 
browning of the meat is dispensed with. When white meat, such as 
chicken, veal, or fresh pork, is used, the gravy is often made rich with 
cream or milk thickened with flour. The numerous minor additions which 
may be introduced give the great variety of such stews found in cookbooks. 

Diiniplings. 

2 cups flour. Vz teaspoonful salt. 

4 teaspoonfuls baking powder. 2 teaspoonfuls butter. 

% cup milk or a little more if 
needed. 

Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Work in the butter with the tips 
of fingers, add milk gradually, roll out to a thickness of one-half and cut 
with biscuit cutter. In some countries it is customary to season the 
dumplings themselves with herbs, etc., or to stuff them with bread crumbs 
fried in butter instead of depending upon the gravy to season them. 

A good way to cook dumplings is to put them in a buttered steamer 
over a kettle of hot water. They should cook from twelve to fifteen 
minutes. If it is necessary to cook them with the stew, enough liquid 
should be removed so that they may be placed upon the meat and vege- 
tables. 

Sometimes the dough is baked and served as biscuits over which the 
stew is poured. If the stew is made with chicken or veal it is generally 
termed a fricasee. 

Ragout of Mutton with Farina Balls. 

1% pounds neck of mutton cut into 2 cups hot water. 

small pieces. 1 teaspoonful salt. 

1 tablespoonful butter. %, teaspoonful pepper. 

1 tablespoonful flour. 1 bay leaf. 

1 onion. Sprig parsley. 

1 carrot. 1 clove. 
Yz can peas. 

59 



Farina Balls. 

% cup farina. % teaspooiiful pepper. 

1 cup milk. Onion juice. 

1/4 teaspoonful salt. Yolk 1 egg. 

Put butter in frying pan. When melted add flour and brown. Add 
carrot and onion, cut in dice. Remove vegetables and add meat, searing 
well. To meat and vegetables add hot water and seasonings. Put in a 
suitable kettle, cover and simmer two hours. Add peas ten minutes 
before serving in a dish with farina balls made as follows: 

Cook farina and milk in double boiler one hour. Add seasoning and 
well-beaten yolk. Stir well and cool. "When cold roll into balls. Dip 
in egg and crumbs and fry in deep fat. Rice may be used in a similar way. 

MEAT PIES AND SIMILAR DISHES. 

Meat pies represent another method of combining fionr with 
meat. They are ordinarily baked in a fairly deep dish the sides of 
which may or may not be lined with dough. The cooked meat, cut 
into small pieces, is put into the dish, sometimes with small pieces 
of vegetables, a gravy is poured over the meat, the dish is covered 
with a layer of dough, and then baked. Most commonly the dough 
is like that used for soda or cream-of-tartar l)iscuit, but sometimes 
shortened pastry dough, such as is made for pies, is used. This is 
especially the case in the fancy individual dishes usually called 
patties. Occasionally the pie is covered with a potato crust in which 
case the meat is put directly into the dish without lining the latter. 
Stewed beef, veal, and chicken are probably most frequently used 
in pies, but any kind of meat may be used, or several kinds in com- 
bination. Pork pies are favorite dishes in many rural regions, 
especially at hog-killing time, and when well made are excellent. 

If pies are made from raw meat and vegetables longer cooking 
is needed than otherwise, and in such cases it is well to cover the dish 
with a plate, cook until the pie is nearly done, then remove the plate, 
add the crust, and return to the oven until the crust is lightly 
browned. Many cooks insist on piercing holes in the top crust of a 
moiit pic directly it is taken from the oven. 

Twelve 'clock Pie. 

This is made with shoulder of mutton, boiled with carrot and onion, 
then cut up, mixed with potatoes separately boiled and cut up, and put 
into a baking dish. The crust is made by mixing smoothly mashed potatoes 
to which a tablespoonful of shortening has been added, with enough flour 
and water to make them roll out easily. A pie made of a pound of meat 
will require 5 or 6 small boiled potatoes, a cupful of mashed potatoes, 
and 8 or 10 tablespoonfuls of flour, and should be baked about twenty 
minutes in a hot oven. Salt, pepper, and other seasoning, as onion and 
carrot, may be added to taste. A teaspoonful of baking powder makes the 
crust lighter. 

Meat and Tomato Pie. 

This dish presents an excellent way of using up small quantities of 
either cold beef or cold mutton. If fresh tomatoes are used, peel and 
slice them; if canned, drain off the liquid. Place a layer of tomato in a 

60 



))aking dish, then a layer of sliced meat, and over the two dredge flour, 
pepper, and salt; repeat until the dish is nearly full, then put in an extra 
layer of tomato and cover the whole with a layer of pastry or of bread or 
cracker crumbs. When the quantity of meat is small, it may be "'helped 
out" by boiled potatoes or other suitable vegetables. A few oysters or 
mushrooms improve the flavor, especially when beef is used. The pie will 
need to be baked from half an hour to an hour according to its size and 
the heat of the oven. 

Meat and Pastry Rolls. 

Small (luantities of cold ham, chicken, or other meat may be utilized 
for these. The meat should be chopped fine, well seasoned, mixed with 
enough savory fat or butter to make It '"shape," and formed into rolls 
about the size of a finger. A short dough (made, say, of a pint of flour, 
2 tablespoonfuls of lard, 1 teaspoonful of baking powder, salt, and milk 
enough to mix) should be rolled thin, cut into strips, and folded about 
the meat rolls, care being taken to keep the shape regular. The rolls 
should be baked in a quick oven until they are a delicate brown color and 
served hot. 

Meat Turnovers. 

Almost any kind of chopped meat may be used in these, and if the 
quantity on hand is small may be mixed with potato or cooked rice. This 
filling should be seasoned to taste with salt and pepper, onion, or whatever 
is relished, and laid on pieces of short biscuit dough rolled thin and cut 
into circles about the size of an ordinary saucer. The edges of the dough 
should be moistened with white of egg, the dough then folded over the 
meat, and its edges pinched closely together. If desired, the tops of the 
turnovers may be brushed over with yolk of egg before they are placed 
in the oven. About half an hour's baking in a hot oven is required. 
Serving with a brown sauce increases the flavor and moistens the crust. 

MEAT WITH MACARONI AND OTHER STARCHY MATERIALS. 

Macaroni cookecl with chopped ham, hasli made of meat and 
potatoes or meat and rice, meat croquettes — made of meat and some 
starchy materials like bread crumbs, cracker dust, or rice — are other 
familiar examples of meat combined with starchy materials. Pilaf, 
a dish very common in the Orient and well known in the United 
States, is of this character and easily made. When there is sou}) 
or SOU}) stock on hand it can be well used in the pilaf. 

Turkish Pilaf. 

% cup of rice. 1 cup stock or broth. 

% cup of tomatoes stewed and 3 tablespoonfuls of butter, 

strained. 

Cook the rice and tomatoes with the stock in a double boiler until 
the rice is tender, removing the cover after the rice is cooked if there is 
too much liquid. Add the butter and stir it in with a fork to prevent the 
rice from being broken. A little catsup or Chili sauce with water enough 
to make three-quarters of a cup may be substituted for the tomatoes. 
This may be served as a border with meat, or served separately in the place 
of a vegetable, or may make the main dish at a meal, as it is savory and 
reasonably nutritious. 

61 



Meat Cakes. 

1 pound chopped veal. 1 teaspoonful chopped onion. 
1/4 pound soaked bread crumbs. 1% teaspoonfuls salt. 

2 tablespoonfuls savory fat or Dash of pepper. 

butter. 

Mix all the ingredients except the butter or fat and shape into small 
round cakes. Melt the fat in a baking pan and brovirn the cakes in it, 
first one side and then the other. Either cooked or raw veal may be 
used. In the case of raw meat the pan should be covered so that the heat 
may be retained to soften the meat. 

Stew from Cold Roast. 

This dish provides a good way of using up the remnants of a roast, 
either of beef or mutton. The meat should be freed from fat, gristle, and 
bones, cut into small pieces, slightly salted, and put into a kettle with 
water enough to nearly cover it. It should simmer until almost ready to 
break in pieces, when onions and raw potatoes, peeled and quartered, 
should be added. A little soup stock may also be added if available. 
Cook until the potatoes are done, then thicken the liquor or gravy with 
flour. The stew may be attractively served on slices of crisp toast. 

MEAT WITH BEANS. 

Dry beans are very rich in protein, the percentage being fully 
as large as that in meat. Dry beans and other similar legumes are 
usually cooked in water, which they absorb, and so are diluted before 
serving; on the other hand, meats by the ordinary methods of cook- 
ing are usually deprived of some of the water originally present — 
facts which are often overlooked in discussing the matter. Never- 
theless, when beans are served with meat the dish is almost as rich 
in protein as if it consisted entirely of meat. 

Pork and beans is such a well-known dish that recipes arc not 
needed. Some cooks use a piece of corned mutton or a piece of 
corned beef in place of salt or corned pork or bacon or use butter or 
olive oil in preparing this dish. 

In the Southern States, where cowpeas are a common crop, they 
are cooked in the same way as dried beans. Cowpeas baked with 
salt ])ork or bacon make an excellent dish resembling pork and 
l)oans, but of distinctive flavor. Cowpeas boiled with ham or with 
bacon are also Avell-known and palatable dishes. 

Recipes are here given for some less common meat and hcan 
dishes. 

Mexican Beef. 

The Mexicans have a dish known as "Chili con came" (meat with 
Chili pepper), the ingredients for which one would doubtless have difficulty 
in obtaining except in the southwestern United States. However, a good 
substitute for it may be made with the foods available in all parts of the 
country. The Mexican recipe is as follows: 

Remove the seeds from two Chili peppers, soak the pods in a pint of 
warm water until they are soft, scrape the pulp from the skin and add to 
the water. Cut two pounds of beef into small pieces and brown in butter 
or drippings. Add a clove of garlic and the Chili water. Cook until the 
meat is tender, renewing the water if necessary. Thicken the sauce with 

62 



flour. Serve witli Mexican beans either mixed with the meat or used as 
a border. 

In the absence of the Chili peppers, water and Cayenne pepper maj- 
be used, and onions may be substituted for garlic. For the Mexican 
beans, red kidney beans either fresli or canned make a good substitute. 
If the canned beans are used they should be drained and heated in a 
little savory fat or butter. The liquid may be added to the meat while 
it is cooking. If the dried beans are used they sliould be soaked until 
soft, then cooked in water until tender and rather dry, a little butter or 
dripping and salt being used for seasoning or gravy. White or dried Lima 
beans may be used in a similar way. 

Mexican Chili Con Carne. 

3 quarts of boiling water. ?, cans of kidney beans. 

2% pounds hamburger. 2 good sized onions. 

% pound suet, ground. % coffee cup flour. 

Add to hamburger. V2 cup of vinegar. 

1 large red pepper. 3 tablespoonfuls sugar. 

1 large green pepper. 3 T. salt. 

1 large yellow pepper. 1 t. Cayenne pepper. 

3 toes of garlic. V^ cake margarine powder or 

2 cans tomatoes. cake. 

2 T. kimmel. 

Mix hamburger and suet; add to boiling water, add peppers and on- 
ions and garlic ground in a meat chopper or cut fine in a bowl, also 
add tomatoes; put in a large kettle (or what is better, use a fireless 
cooker), and cook at moderate temperature of heat 45 m., then take 
vinegar, flour, cayenne pepper, sugar, salt, margarine; mix together, 
making a smooth paste, add to above ingredients and stir constantly 5 m.; 
cover tightly and set back and on stove and cook ten minutes longer, 
add kimmel just before serving. 

— Dr Mo//cr. 

Haricot of Mutton. 

2 (ablesi)oonfuls of cho|)ped onions. 2 cups of water, and salt and 
li tablespoonfuls of butter or pepper. 

drippings. 1% pounds of lean mutton or lamb 

cut into 2-inch pieces. 

Fry the onions in the butter, add the meat, and brown; cover 
with water and cook until the meat is tender. Serve with a border of 
Lima beans, seasoned with salt, pepper, butter, and a little chopped 
parsley. Fresh, canned, dried, or evaporated Lima beans may be used in 
making" this dish. 

Roast Pork with Cowpeas. 

For this dish a leg of young pork should be selected. With a sharp 
knife make a deep cut in the knuckle and fill the opening with sage, 
I)epper, salt, and chopped onion. When the roast is half done scar the 
skin but do not cut deeper than the outer rind. When the meat is nearly 
cooked pour off the excess of fat and add a quart of white cowpeas which 
have been previously parboiled or "hulled" and cook slowly until quite 
done and the meat is brown. Apple sauce may be served with this dish. 

MEAT SALADS. 

AVhether meat salads are economical or not depends upon the 
Avay in which the materials are utilized. If in chicken salad, for 
example, only the Avhite meat of chickens especially bought for the 

63 



[)iiri)osc and only the inside stems oi' expensive celery are used, it 
ean hardly be cheaper than plain chicken. But, if portions of meat 
left over from a previous serving are mixed with celery grown at 
home, they certainly make an economical dish, and one very accept- 
able to most persons. Cold roast pork or tender veal — in fact, any 
white meat can be utilized in the same way. Apples cut into cubes 
may be substituted for part of the celery; many cooks consider that 
with the apple the salad takes the dressing better than with the 
celery alone. Many also prefer to marinate (i. e., mix with a little oil 
and vinegar) the meat and celery or celery and apples before putting 
in the final dressing, which may be either mayonnaise or a good 
boiled dressing. 

MEAT WITH EGGS. 

Occasionally eggs are combined with meat, making very nutri- 
tious dishes. "Whether this is an economy or not of course depends 
on the comparative cost of eggs and meat. 

In general, it may be said that eggs are cheaper food than meat 
when a dozen costs less than 1% pounds of meat, for a dozen eggs 
weighs about l^/o pounds and the proportions of protein and fat 
which they contain are not far diiiferent from the proportions of 
these nutrients in the average cut of meat. When eggs are 30 cents 
a dozen they compare favorably with round of beef at 20 cents a 
pound. 

Such common dishes as ham and eggs, bacon or salt pork and 
eggs, and omelette with minced ham or other meat are familiar to 
all cooks. 

Roast Beef with Yorkshire Pudding. 

The beef is roasted as usual and the pudding made as follows: 

Yorkshire Pudding. 

3 eggs. 1 cupful flour. 

1 pint milk. 1 teaspoonful salt. 

Beat the eggs until very light, then add the milk. Pour the mixture 
over the flour, add the salt, and beat well. Bake in hissing hot gem pans 
or in an ordinary baking pan for forty-five minutes, and baste with drip- 
pings from the beef. If gem pans are used, they should be placed on a 
dripping pan to protect the floor of the oven from the fat. Many cooks 
prefer to make Yorkshire pudding in the pan with the meat; in this case 
the roast should be placed on a rack and the pudding batter poured on 
the pan under it. 

Corned-Beef Hash with Poached Eggs. 

A dish popular with many persons is corned-beef hash with poached 
eggs on top of the hash. A slice of toast is sometimes used under the 
hash. This suggests a way of utilizing the small amount of corned-beef 
hash which w^ould otherwise be insufficient for a meal. 

Housekeepers occasionally use up odd bits of other meat in a similar 
way, chopping and seasoning them and then warming and serving in 
individual baking cups with a poached or shirred egg on each. 

64 



Ham and Poached Eggs with Cream Sauce. 

A more elaborate dish of meat and eggs is made by placing a piece 
of thinly sliced boiled ham on a round of buttered toast, a poached egg 
on the ham, and covering with a highly seasoned cream or a Hollandaise 
sauce. A slice of tongue may be used instead of the ham. If preferred, 
a well-seasoned and rather thick tomato sauce or curry sauce may be used. 

STUFFING OR FORCEMEAT. 

An(3tlier popular way to extend the flavor of meat over a large 
amoimt of food is by the use of stuffing or forcemeat (a synonym 
more common in P^ngland than in the United States). As it is im- 
possible to introduce much stuffing into some pieces of meat even if 
the meat is cut to make a pocket for it, it is often well to prepare 
more than can be put into the meat and to cook the remainder in the 
pan beside the meat. Some cooks cover the extra stuffing with but- 
tered paper while it is cooking and baste it at intervals. 

Some recipes for meat dishes of this character follow, and otlu»rs 
will be found in cook books. 

Mock Duck. 

Mock duck is made by placing on a round steak a stuffing of bread 
crumb well seasoned with chopped onions, butter, chopped suet or drip- 
ping, salt, pepper, and a little sage, if the flavor is relished. The steak 
is then rolled around the stuffing and tied with a string in several places. 
If the steak seems tough, the roll is steamed or stewed until tender before 
roasting in the oven until brown. Or it may be cooked in a casserole or 
other covered dish, in which case a cupful or more of water or soup-stock 
should be poured around the meat. Mock duck is excellent served with 
currant or other acid jelly. 

iMock Wild Duck. 

1 flank steak, or 1 tablespoonful minced onion. 

1 Vz pounds round steak cut Vz inch Salt, pepper, and powdered thyme, 

thick. sage, and savory. 

2 lamb kidneys. 2 tablespoonfuls flour. 
% cup butter or drippings. 1 tablespoonful sugar. 

Vz cup cracker crumbs. 3 cupfuls water or stock. 

Trim the kidneys of all fat, cords, and veins. Cut into small pieces 
and spread evenly over one side of the steak together with the crumbs, 
onion, and seasonings. Roll and tie with a cord. Brown the roll in fat, 
then remove and make a gravy by heating the flour in the fat and adding 
three cupfuls of stock or water and the sugar. Put the meat into the 
gravy and cook slowly until tender in a covered baking dish, a steamer, 
or a fireless cooker. If steamed or cooked in a fireless cooker, the roll 
should be browned in the oven before serving. 

UTILIZING THE CHEAPER CUTS OF MEATS IN PALATABLE 

DISHES. 

When the housekeeper attempts to reduce her meat bill by using 
the less expensive cuts, she commonly has two difficulties to contend 
with — toughness and lack of flavor. It has been shown how pro- 
longed cooking softens the connective tissues of the meat. Pounding 
the meat and chopping it are also employed with tough cuts, as they 

65 



help to break the muscle fibers. As for flavor, the natural flavor 
of meat even in the least desirable cuts may be developed by careful 
cooking, notably by browning the surface, and other flavors may be 
given by the addition of vegetables and seasoning w^ith condiments 
of various kinds. 

Methods of preparing inexpensive meat dishes will be discussed 
and practical directions for them Avill be given in the following 
sections. As often happens, two or three methods may be illustrated 
by the same dish, but the attempt has been made to group the recipes 
according to their most salient feature. 

PROLONGED COOKING AT LOW HEAT. 

Meat may be cooked in water in a number of Avays Avithout 
being allowed to reach the boiling point. With the ordinary kitchen 
range this is accomplished by cooking on the cooler part of the 
stove rather than on the hottest part, directly over the fire. Exper- 
ience with a gas stove, particularly if it has a small burner known as 
a "simmerer," usually enables the cook to maintain temperatures 
which are high enough to sterilize the meat if it has become acci- 
dentally contaminated in any way and to make it tender without 
hardening the fibers. The double boiler would seem to be a neglected 
utensil for this purpose. Its contents can easily be kept up to a 
temperature of 200° F., and nothing will burn. Another method is 
by means of the tireless cooker. In this a high temperature can be 
maintained for a long time without the application of fresh heat. 
Still another method is by means of a closely covered baking dish. 
Earthenware dishes of this kind suitalile for serving foods as well as 
for cooking are known as casseroles. For cooking purposes a baking 
dish covered with a plate or a bean jar covered with a saucer may 
be substituted. The Aladdin oven has long been popular for the 
purpose of preserving temperatures which are near the boiling point 
and yet do not reach it. It is a thoroughly insulated oven whicli 
may be heated either Ijy a kerosene lamp or a gas jet. 

In this connection directions are given for using some of liic 
toughest and least promising pieces of meat. 

Stewed Shin of Beef. 

4 pounds of shin of beef. V2 tablespoonful of salt. 

1 medium-sized onion. V2 teaspoonful of pepper. 

1 whole clove and a small bay leaf. 2 quarts of boiling water. 

1 sprig of parsley. 1 % tablespoonfuls of butter or 

1 V2 tablespoonfuls of flour. savory drippings. 

1 small slice of carrot. 

Have the butcher cut the bone in several pieces. Put all the in- 
gredients but the flour and butter into a stewpan and bring to a boil. 
Set the pan where the liquid will just simmer for six hours, or after boiling 
for five or ten minutes, put all into the fireless cooker for eight or nine 
hours. With the butter, flour, and one-half cupful of the clear soup from 
which the fat has been removed, make a brown sauce; to this add the 

66 



meat and the marrow removed from the bone. Heat and serve. The 
remainder of the liquid in which the nieat has been cooked may be used 
for soup. 

Boiled Beef with Horse-radish Sauce. 

Plain boiled beef may also be served with horse-radish sauce, for 
which a recipe is given, and makes a palatable dish. A little chopped 
parsley sprinkled over the meat when served is considered an improve- 
ment by many persons. For the sake of variety the meat may be browned 
like pot roast before serving. 

Scotch Broth. 

3 pounds mutton. 2 tablespoonfuls of minced celery. 

2 tablespoonfuls of pearl barley. 2 tablespoonfuls of salt. 

2 tablespoonfuls of minced onion. 1 teaspoonful of pepper. 

2 tablespoonfuls of minced turnip. 1 tablespoonful of minced parsley. 

2 tablespoonfuls of minced carrot. 3 quarts cold water. 

Remove the bones and all the fat from the mutton, cut the meat into 
small pieces and put it into a stewpan with the water, chopped vegetables, 
barley, and all the seasoning excepting the parsley. It will be found 
convenient to tie the bones in a piece of thin white cloth before adding 
them to the other ingredients. Bring the stew to a boil, quickly skim it 
and allow it to simmer for three hours, thicken with the flour, and 'add 
the chopped parsley. 

Stuffed Heart. 

Wash the heart thoroughly inside and out, stuff with the following 
mixture, and sew up the opening: One cup broken bread dipped in fat 
and browned in the oven, 1 chopped onion, and salt and pepper to taste. 

Cover the heart with water and simmer until tender or boil ten 
minutes and set in the fireless cooker for six or eight hours. Remove from 
the water about one-half hour before serving. Dredge with flour, pepper, 
and salt, or sprinkle with crumbs and bake until brown. 

Braised Beef, Pot Roast, and Beef a la Mode. 

The above names are given to dishes made from the less tender cuts 
of meat. They vary little either in composition or method of preparation. 
In all cases the meat is browned on the outside to increase the flavor and 
then cooked in a small amount of water in a closely covered kettle or 
other receptacle until tender. The flavor of the dish is secured by brown- 
ing the meat and by the addition of the seasoning vegetables. Many 
recipes suggest that the vegetables be removed before serving and the 
liquid be thickened. As the vegetables are usually extremely well-seasoned 
by means of the browned fat and the extracts of the meat, it seems 
unfortunate not to serve them. 

Of course, the kind, quality, and shape of the meat all play their 
part in the matter. Extra time is needed for meats with a good deal of 
sinew and tough fibers such as the tough steaks, shank cuts, etc.; and 
naturally a fillet of beef, or a steak from a prime cut, will take less time 
than a thick piece from the shin. Such dishes require more time and 
perhaps more skill in their preparation and may involve more expense 
for fuel than the more costly cuts, which like chops or tender steaks may 
be quickly cooked, but to the epicure, as well as to the average man, they 
are palatable when rightly prepared. 

67 



Bean-Pot Roast. 

3 pounds mutton (shoulder), or 1 cup potatoes cut into small pieces. 

3 pounds round, or chuck steak. Y^ cup sliced onion. 

1 cup carrots cut into small pieces. 

Cover the meat with boiling water. Place the cover on the bean pot 
and let the meat cook in a moderate oven for two hours; then add the 
vegetables cut in half-inch cubes, with 2 teaspoonfuls salt; cook until 
the vegetables are tender, which will require about one hour; then serve, 
pouring a sauce over the meat, made from 1 cup of the liquid in which 
the meat was cooked, thickened with 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. 

Hungarian Goulash. 

2 pounds top round of beef. 1 onion. 

A little flour. 2 bay leaves. 

2 ounces salt pork. 6 whole cloves. 

2 cups tomatoes. 6 peppercorns. 

1 stalk celery. 1 blade mace. 

Cut the beef into 2-inch pieces and sprinkle with flour; fry the salt 
pork until light brown; add the beef and cook slowly for about thirty-five 
minutes, stirring occasionally. Cover with water and simmer about two 
hours; season with salt and pepper or paprika. 

From the vegetables and spices a sauce is made as follows: Cook in 
sufficient water to cover for twenty minutes; then rub through a sieve, 
and add to some of the stock in which the meat was cooked. Thicken with 
flour, using 2 tablespoonfuls (moistened with cold water) to each cup of 
liquid, and season with salt and paprika. 

Serve the meat on a platter with the sauce poured over it. Potatoes, 
carrots, and green peppers cooked until tender, and cut into small pieces 
or narrow strips, are usually sprinkled over the dish when served, and 
noodles may be arranged in a border upon the platter. 

Goulash is a Hungarian dish which has come to be a favorite in the 
United States. 

CASSEROLE COOKERY. 

A casserole is a heavy earthenware dish with a cover. A substitute 
for it can easily be improvised by using any heavy earthenware dish with 
a heavy plate for the cover. A casserole presentable enough in appearance 
to be put on the table serves the double purpose of baking and serving dish. 

A suitable cut of beef or veal, and it may well be one of the cheaper 
cuts, as the long, slow cooking insures tenderness, may be cooked in a 
casserole. 

Poultry and other meats besides beef or veal can be cooked in this 
manner. Chicken cooked in a casserole, which is a favorite and expensive 
dish in good hotels and restaurants, may be easily prepared in the home, 
and casserole cookery is to be recommended for a tough chicken. 

The heat must be moderate and the cooking must occupy a long time. 
Hitrried cooking in a casserole is out of the question. If care is taken in 
this particular, and suitable seasonings are used, few who know anything 
of cooking should go astray. 

Chopped meat also may be cooked in a casserole and this utensil is 
particularly useful for the purpose, because the food is served in the same 
dish in which it is cooked and may easily be kept hot, a point which is 
important with chopped meats, which usually cool rapidly. 

68 



Casserole Roast. 

3 or 4 pounds of round or rump of One-fourth each of a carrot, a tur- 

beef. nip, an onion, and a head of 

A slice of salt pork. celerj^ cut into small pieces. 
A few peppercorns. 

Try out the pork. Brown the meat on both sides in the fat. Put in 
a casserole with the vegetables around it, add 2 cupfuls of water or stock. 
Cover and cook in a hot oven three hours, basting occasionally. A sauce 
or gravy can be made with water, flour, and some of the juice left in the 
casserole. 

Casserole or Italian Hash. 

Boil one-fourth pound of macaroni, drain and put into a buttered 
casserole, add a little butter and grated cheese. Push the macaroni to 
the sides of the dish and fill the center with chopped cooked meat seasoned 
to suit the taste of the family. A little sausage gives a good flavor to 
this dish. Place in the oven until hot throughout and serve. 

A very good modification of this is made by using raw instead of 
cooked meat. For this one-half pound of round steak is sufficient for a 
family of six. This should be cut into small pieces, browned, and cooked 
until tender in water with the onions and other seasonings. An hour 
before the cooking is complete, add one-half can of tomatoes. Before 
serving, the meat may be mixed with the sauce, and the whole is poured 
over the macaroni. 

MEAT COOKED WITH VINEGAR. 

Dishes of similar sort as regards cooking, but in which vinegar 
is used to give fiavor as -well as to soften the meat and make it tender, 
are the following : 

Sour Beef. 

Take a piece of beef from the rump or the lower round, cover with 
vinegar or with a half-and-half mixture of vinegar and water, add sliced 
onion, bay leaves, and a few mixed whole spices and salt. Allow to stand 
a week in winter or three or four days in summer; turn once a day and 
keep covered. When ready to cook, brown the meat in fat, using an 
enameled iron pan, strain the liquid over it and cook until tender; 
thicken the gravy with fiour or ginger snaps (which may be broken up 
first), strain it, and pour over the sliced meat. Some cooks add cream. 

Sour Beefsteak. 

Round steak may be cooked in water in which there is a little vinegar, 
or if the time is suflScient, it may be soaked for a few hours in vinegar 
and water and then cooked in a casserole or in some similar way. 

POUNDED MEAT. 

Pounding meat before cooking is an old-fashioned method of 
making it tender, but while it has the advantage of breaking down 
the tough tissues it has the disadvantage of being likely to drive out 
the juices and Avith them the flavor. A very good Avay of escaping 
this dit^culty is pounding flour into the meat ; this catches and retains 
the juices. Below are given the recipes for two palatable dishes in 
which this is done : 

69 



Fanner Stew. 

Pound flour into both sides of a round steak, using as much as the 
meat will take up. This may be done with a meat pounder or with the 
edge of a heavy plate. Fry in drippings, butter, or other fat in a Scotch 
bowl, or if more convenient in an ordinary iron kettle or a frying pan; 
then add water enough to cover it. Cover the dish very tightly so that 
the steam can not escape and allow the meat to simmer for two hours 
or until it is tender. One advantage of this dish is that ordinarily it is 
ready to serve when the meat is done as the gravy is already thickened. 
However, if a large amount of fat is used in the frying, the gravy may 
not be thick enough and must be blended with flour. 

Spanish Beefsteak. 

Take a piece of round steak weighing 2 pounds and about an inch 
thick; pound until thin, season with salt and Cayenne pepper, cover with 
a layer of bacon or salt pork, cut into thin slices, roll and tie with a 
cord. Pour around it half a cupful of milk and half a cupful of water. 
Place in a covered baking dish and cook two hours, basting occasionally. 

CHOPPED MEAT. 

Chopping meat is one of the principal methods of making tongh 
and inexpensive meat tender, i. e., dividing it finely and thns cutting 
the connective tissue into small bits. Such meats have another 
advantage in that they may be cooked quickly and economically. 

In broiling chopped meat the fact should be kept in mind that there 
is no reason why it should not be cooked like the best and most expensive 
tenderloin. The only reason that ever existed for difference in treatment 
was the toughness of the connective tissue, and this feature has been 
overcome by the chopping. The ideal to be reached in broiling steak is to 
sear the surface very quickly, so that the juices which contain the greater 
part of the flavoring of the meat shall be kept in, and then to allow the 
heat to penetrate to the inside until the whole mass is cooked to the 
taste of the family. To pass the point where the meat ceases to be puffy 
and juicy and becomes flat and hard is very undesirable, as the palata- 
bility is then lost. Exactly the same ideal should be kept in mind in 
broiling chopped meat. If this were always done, hard, compact, taste- 
less balls or cakes of meat would be served less often. To begin with, 
the broiler should be even more carefully greased than for a whole steak. 
This makes it possible to form the balls or cakes of chopped meat with 
very little pressure without running" the risk of having them pulled to 
pieces by adhering to the wires of the broiler. They should be heated on 
both sides even more quickly than the steak, because the chopping has 
provided more ways of escape for the juice, and these openings should 
be sealed as soon as possible. The interior should be cooked to the taste 
of the family just as the steak is. 

In regard to broiling it may incidentally be noted that housekeepers 
often make themselves unnecessary work when broiling under gas by 
allowing the juice from steaks or meat balls to drop into the large pan 
under the rack. A smaller pan set in the larger one may be made to catch 
all the juice and fat and is much easier to wash. It serves also to econ- 
omize the gravy. 

Chopped raw meat of almost any kind can be very quickly made into 
a savory dish by cooking it with water or with water and milk for a 
short time, then thickening with butter and flour, and adding different 
seasonings as relished, either pepper and salt alone, or onion juice, celery, 
or tomato. Such a dish may be made to "go further" by serving it on 
toast or with a border of rice or in some similar combination. 

70 



Tough Portions of Porterhouse Steak. 

Before speaking of the cooking of the cuts that lack tenderness 
throughout, it may be well to refer to the fact that the flank end of the 
porterhouse is to be classed with the toughest of cuts and with those 
which, when cooked alone, are with difficulty made tender even by long 
heating. Mock duck, which is commonly made of flank steak, can be 
rendered tender enough to be palatable only by long steaming or cooking 
in water, and yet people quite generally broil this part of the steak 
with the tenderloin and expect it to be eaten. The fact is that to broil 
this part of the porterhouse steak is not good management. It is much 
more profitable to put it into the soup kettle or to make it into a stew. 
In families where most of the members are away during the day the 
latter is a good plan, for the end of a steak makes a good stew for two 
or three people. This may be seasoned with vegetables left from dinner, 
or two or three olives cut up in gravy will give a very good flavor; or a 
few drops of some one of the bottled meat sauces, if the flavor is relished, 
or a little Chili sauce may be added to the stew. But if the tough end 
of a porterhouse is needed with the rest, a good plan is to put it through 
a meat grinder, make it into balls, and broil it with the tender portions. 
Each member of the family can then be served with a piece of the ten- 
derloin and a meat ball. If the chopped meat is seasoned with a little 
onion juice, grated lemon rind, or chopped parsley, a good flavor is im- 
parted to the gravy. 

Hamburg Steak. 

This name is commonly given to inexpensive cuts of beef chopped, 
seasoned a little, shaped into small balls or into one large thin cake, and 
quickly broiled in the way that a tender steak would be. Owing to the 
quick cooking much of the natural flavor of the meat is developed and 
retained. The fact should be kept in mind that Hamburg steak must be 
made from fresh, well-ground meat. It is much safer to chop the meat 
at home, as chopped meat spoils very quickly. Much depends, too, upon 
browning it sufficiently to bring out the flavors. Many cooks think that 
Hamburg steak is improved if the meat is mixed with milk before it is 
cooked. 

In some parts of the country, and particularly in some of the Southern 
States, two kinds of beef are on sale. One is imported from other parts 
of the country and is of higher price. The other, known locally as "native 
beef," is sometimes lacking in flavor and in fat and is usually tougher. 
Southern native beef such as is raised in Florida is almost invariably, 
however, of extremely good flavor, due presumably to the feed or other 
conditions under which it is raised. By chopping such meat and cooking 
it as Hamburg steak, a dish almost as palatable as the best cuts of the 
more expensive beef may be obtained. In such cases, however, it is 
desirable because of the low percentage of fat to add suet or butter to the 
meat. The reason for this is that in the cooking the water of the juice 
when unprotected by fat evaporates too quickly and leaves the meat dry. 
This may be prevented by adding egg as well as fat, for the albumen of 
the egg hardens quickly and tends to keep in the juices. The proportion 
should be 1 egg to 1 % pounds of meat. 

Savory Rolls. 

Savory rolls in great variety are made of chopped meat either with 
or without egg. The variety is secured by the flavoring materials used 
and by the sauces with which the baked rolls are served. A few recipes 
will be given below. While these definite directions are given it should 
be remembered that a few general principles borne in mind make recipes 
unnecessary and make it possible to utilize whatever may happen to be 
on hand. Appetizing rolls are made with beef and pork mixed. The 

71 



proportion varies from two parts of beef and one of pork to two of pork 
and one of beef. The rolls are always improved by laying thin slices of 
salt pork or bacon over them, which keep the surface moistened with 
fat during the roasting. These slices should be scored on the edge, so 
that they will not curl up in cooking. The necessity for the salt pork is 
greater when the chopped meat is chiefly beef than when it is largely 
pork or veal. Bread crumbs or bread moistened in water can always be 
added, as it helps to make the dish go farther. When onions, green 
peppers, or other vegetables are used, they should always be thoroughly 
cooked in fat before being put in the roll, for usually they do not cook 
sufficiently in the length of time it takes to cook the meat. Sausage makes 
a good addition to the roll, but it is usually cheaper to use unseasoned 
pork meat with the addition of a little sage. 

Cannelon of Beef, Paper Bags. 

This dish is prepared by making chopped beef into a roll and baking 
it wrapped in a buttered paper, a method designed to keep in the steam 
and so insure a moist, tender dish. The paper must be removed before 
serving. The roll should be basted occasionally with butter and water or 
drippings and water. In preparing the roll an egg may be added for 
each pound and a half of meat, and chopped parsley, onion juice, lemon 
peel, or finely chopped green peppers make good seasoning. A thickened 
gravy may be made from the drippings, the liquid used being either 
water or tomato juice. 

Strips of pork laid on the roll may be substituted for the buttered 
paper and basting. 

Filipino Beef. 



1 egg. 

2 cups of stewed tomatoes. 
2 slices of bacon. 

2 tablespoonfuls of butter. 
4 tablespoonfuls of flour. 



1 pound round beef. 

V2. pound lean fresh pork. 

1 small onion. 

1 green pepper. 

1 teaspoonful of salt. 

1 cup of soft stale bread crumbs. 

Remove the seeds from the pepper and put it through the meat 
grinder with the meats and the onion. Add crumbs, egg, and salt. Make 
into a roll, place in a shallow baking dish, pour the strained tomatoes 
around it, put the bacon on top, and bake forty minutes, basting with 
the tomatoes. Thicken the gravy with the flour cooked in the butter. A 
little seasoning such as a bit of bay leaf, a clove, and a small piece of 
onion improves the tomato sauce. As the pepper and onion are not likely 
to be cooked as soon as the meat, it is well to fry them in a little fat 
before adding to the other ingredients. 

This dish will serve 6 to 8 people. When the meat is 2 cents a 
pound and every other item is valued at usual town market prices, the 
dish costs about 50 cents. If the meat costs only 10 cents per pound and 
vegetables from the garden are used the initial cost of the dish will be 
small. Since no vegetable except potatoes or rice need be served with 
this dish, it may be said to answer the purpose of both meat and vegetable. 

Mock Rabbit. 

3 slices of bread moistened with 

water. 
1 egg. 
1 onion. 

% pound salt pork. 
Pepper and salt. 
Chop the onion and cook (but do not brown) it in 



I 1/^ pound round steak, and 
I 1 pound sausage; 

or 
5 1 pound round steak, and 
\ V2 pound sausage meat. 



Chop the meat. 



the fat tried out of a small portion of the jiork. Add the bread and cook 



72 



a few minutes. When this is cool, mix all the ingi'edients and form into 
a long round roll. The surface can easily be made smooth if the hand 
is wet with cold water. Lay the remaining pork cut in thin slices on 
top and bake forty minutes in a hot oven. The sausage may be omitted 
if desired and other seasoning used. 

Veal Loaf. 

3 pounds veal. 3 eggs well beaten. 

1 pound salt pork. % teaspoonful pepper. 

G soda crackers rolled fine. V2 teaspoonful salt. 

Chop the meat mixed with the other ingredients, shape, and bake 
three hours, basting occasionally with pork fat. Use one-fourth cut of 
fat for this purpose. If the roll is pierced occasionally the fat will pene- 
trate more effectually. Veal loaf may also be cooked in bi'ead pans. 
Some persons cook the veal before chopping. 

DEVELOPING AND IMPROVING FLAVOR OF MEAT. 

The typical meat flavors are very palatable to most persons, even 
when they are constantly tasted, and consequently the better cuts 
of meat in which they are well developed can be cooked and served 
without attention being paid especially to flavor. Careful cooking 
aids in developing the natural flavor of some of the cheaper cuts, and 
such a result is to be sought wherever it is possible. Browning also 
brings out flavors agreeable to most palates. Aside from these two 
ways of increasing the flavor of the meat itself there are countless 
ways of adding flavor to otherwise rather tasteless meats. The 
flavors may be added in preparing the meat for cooking, as in various 
seasoned dishes already described, or they may be supplied to cooked 
meat in the form of sauces. 

RETAINING NATURAL FLAVOR. 

As has already been pointed out, it is extremely difficult to 
retain the flavor-giving extractives in a piece of meat so tough as to 
I'equire prolonged cooking. It is sometimes partially accomplished 
l)y flrst searing the exterior of the meat and thus preventing the 
escape of the juices. Another device, illustrated by the following 
recipe, is to let them escape into the gravy which is served with the 
meat itself. A similar principle is applied when roasts are l)asted 
with tlieir own juice. 

Round Steak on Biscuits. 

Cut round steak into pieces about one-half inch square, cover with 
water and cook it at a temperature just below the boiling point until it is 
tender, or boil for five minutes, and while still hot put into the fireless 
cooker and leave it for five hours. Thicken the gravy with flour mixed 
with water, allowing 2 level tablespoonfuls to a cup of water. Pour the 
meat and gravy over split baking-powder biscuits so baked that they have 
a large amount of crust. 

73 



FLAVOR OF BROWNED MEAT OR FAT. 

Next to the unchanged flavor of the meat itself comes the flavor 
which is secured by browning the meat with fat. The outside slices 
of roast meat have this browned flavor in marked degree. Except 
in the case of roasts, browning for flavor is usually accomplished by 
heating the meat in a frying pan in fat which has been fried out of 
pork or in suet or butter. Care should be taken that the fat is not 
scorched. The chief reason for the bad opinion in which fried food 
is held by many is that it almost always means eating burned fat. 
When fat is heated too high it splits up into fatty acids and glycerin, 
and from the glycerin is formed a substance (acrolein) which has a 
very irritating effect upon the mucous membrane. All will recall 
that the fumes of scorched fat make the eyes water. It is not sur- 
prising that such a substance, if taken into the stomach, should 
cause -digestive disturbance. Fat in itself is a very valuable food, 
and the objection to fried foods because they may be fat seems 
illogical. If they supply burned fat there is a good reason for 
suspicion. Many housekeepers cook bacon in the oven on a wire 
broiler over a pan and believe it more wholesome than fried bacon. 
The reason, of course, is that thus cooked in the oven there is less 
chance for the bacon becoming impregnated with burned fat. Where 
fried salt pork is much used good cooks know that it must not be 
cooked over a very hot fire, even if they have never heard of the 
chemistry of burned fat. The recipe for bean-pot roast and 
other similar recipes may be varied by browning the meat or part 
of it before covering with water. This results in keeping some of 
the natural flavor within the meat itself and alloAving less to go into 
the gravy. The flavor of veal can be very greatly improved in this 
way. 

The following old-fashioned dishes made with pork owe their 
savoriness chiefly to the flavor of browned fat or meat : 

Salt Pork with Milk Gravy. 

Cut salt or cured pork into thin slices. If very salt, cover with hot 
water and allow it to stand for ten minutes. Score the rind of the slices 
and fry slowly until they are a golden brown Make a milk gravy by 
heating flour in the fat that has been tried out, allowing 2 tablespoonfuls 
of fat and 2 tablespoonfuls of flour to each cup of milk. This is a good 
way to use skim milk, which is as rich in protein as whole milk. The 
pork and milk gravy served with boiled or baked potatoes makes a cheap 
and simple meal, but one that most people like very much. Bacon is 
often used in place of salt pork in making this dish. 

Fried Salt Pork with Salt Codfish or ' ' Salt-fish Dinner. ' ' 

V2 pound salt pork. 4 tablespoonfuls flour. 

1 pound codfish. A speck of salt. 

2 cups of milk (skim milk will do). 

Cut the codfish into strips, soak in lukewarm water and then cook in 
water until tender but do not allow the water to come to the boiling point 
except for a very short time as prolonged boiling may make it tough. 

74 



Cut the pork into one-fourth inch slices and cut several gashes in each 
piece. Fry very slowly until golden brown, and remove, pouring off the 
fat. Out of 4 tablespoonfuls of the fat, the flour, and the milk make a 
white sauce. Dish up the codfish with pieces of pork around it and serve 
with boiled potatoes and beets. Some persons serve the pork, and the 
fat from it, in a gravy boat so it can be added as relished. 

FLAVORING VEGETABLES, HERBS, SPICES, ETC. 

Many flavorings are used in meat dishes, some of which are 
familiar to all cooks — onions, carrots, turnips, and garlic being per- 
haps the most widely known. Butter, too, may be regarded as one of 
the most common seasonings, and of course makes the dish richer. 
Meat extract is also used for flavoring many meat dishes and other 
foods, as are also, though less commonly, similar extracts made 
from clams or other "sea foods." The following list includes these 
with various others, a number of which it is convenient to keep 
always on hand : Onions, carrots, green peppers, parsnips, turnips, 
tomatoes, fresh, canned or dried ; celery tops and parsley, either 
fresh or dried; sage, savory, thyme, sweet marjoram, bay leaf, garlic, 
lemon rind, vinegar, capers, pickles, olives, currant jelly, curry 
powder, cloves, pepper corns, celery seed, meat extract, Chili sauce, 
pepper sauce, or some similar hot or sharp sauce, and some kind of 
good commercial meat sauce. Some hints regarding the use of such 
flavorings follow^ : 

Flavor of fried vegetables. — Most of the stews, soups, braised meats, 
and pot roasts are very much improved if the flavoring vegetables which 
they contain, such as carrots, turnips, onions, celery, or green peppers, 
are fried in a little fat before being cooked with the meat. This need not 
complicate the preparation of the meat or increase the number of utensils 
used, for the meat itself is usually seared over in fat, and the vegetables 
can be cooked In the same fat before the browning of the meat. 

Onion jnice. — Cookbooks usually say that onion juice should be ex- 
tracted by cutting an onion in two and rubbing the cut surface against a 
grater. Considering how hard it is to wash a grater, this method has 
its drawbacks. Small amounts of juice may be obtained in the following 
simpler way: Peel the onion and extract a few drops of juice by pressing 
one side with a dull edge of a knife. 

Green peppers. — The flavor of green peppers gives an acceptable 
variety. The seed should always be removed. The peppers should be 
chopped and added to chopped meat or other meat dishes. Meat mixed 
with bread crumbs may be baked in the pepper shells and the stuffed 
peppers served as a separate dish. 

Parsley. — It is easy to raise parsley by growing it in a pot in the 
kitchen window and thus to have it always on hand fresh, or the leaves 
may be kept for a long time if sealed up in a fruit jar and stored in a 
cool place. Parsley, mint, and celery tops may all be dried, rubbed into 
fine bits, and kept in air-tight jars. Recipes usually say to chop fresh 
parsley with a sharp knife on a board. But a board is a hard thing to 
wash and a plate serves the purpose quite as well. 

Bay leaf. — Bay leaf is one of the best and at the same time one of 
the most-abused flavors. In small quantities it gives a very pleasant 
flavor to soups and gravies, but in large quantities it gives a rank resin- 
like taste. Remember that half of a bay leaf is the allowance for 3 quarts 



of soup stock. This will indicate how small a quantity should be used for 
a portion of gravy usually served at a meal. With this precaution in 
mind, bay leaf may be recommended as a flavoring for many sauces, 
particularly tomato sauce. 

A kitchen bouquet. — A "bouquet" such as is often referred to in recipes 
may be made as follows: A sprig each of parsley, savory and thyme, one 
small leaf of sage, and a bay leaf. This will flavor 1 gallon of soup when 
cooked in it for an hour and should not remain in it longer. 

Horse-radish. — Horse-radish, like mustard, is more often served with 
meat than used to flavor it during cooking. A very palatable sauce, espe- 
cially good with boiled beef, is made by adding grated horse-radish and a 
little vinegar to a little whipped cream, or as follows: Thicken milk with 
cracker crumbs by heating them together in a double boiler, using 3 
tablespoonfuls of cracker crumbs to 1 V2 cups of milk. Add Va of a cup 
of grated horseradish, 3 tablespoonfuls of butter and % teaspoonful of 
salt; or thicken with butter and flour some of the water in which the meat 
was boiled, add a generous quantity ( 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls) of grated 
horse-radish, boil a short time, and serve. This recipe is the most usual 
in German homes where the sauce is a favorite. 

Acid flavoring. — Vinegar, lemon juice, and sour jelly, like currant, are 
often used to flavor the thick gravies which are a part of meat stew or 
which are served with it. Vinegar is an old-fashioned relish which was 
often added to bacon or salt pork and greens, pork and beans, corned beef 
and cabbage, and similar dishes. These flavors combine well with that of 
brown flour, but not with onions or other vegetables of strong flavor. 
The idea that vinegar used in small quantities is unwholesome seems to 
be without foundation. 

Pickles. — ^Chopped pickles are sometimes added to the gravy served 
with boiled mutton. They are cheaper than capers and serve somewhat the 
same purpose. Chopped pickles are also very commonly used in sauces 
for fish and in many others to give a distinctive flavor. 

Olives. — Chopped olives also make a welcome variety in meat sauce, 
and are not expensive if they are bought in bulk. They will not spoil if 
a little olive oil is poured on the top of the liquor in which they are kept. 
This liquor should always completely cover them. 

Chili sauce, commercial meat sauces, etc. — Recipes often may be varied 
by the addition of a little Chili sauce, tomato catsup, or a commercial 
meat sauce. These may be called emergency flavors and used when it is 
not convenient to prepare other kinds of gravies. 

Sausage, — A little sausage or chopped ham may be used in chopped 

beef. 

Curry powder. — This mixture of spices which apparently originated 
in India, but which is now a common commercial product everywhere, is 
a favorite flavoring for veal, lamb, or poultry. The precaution mentioned 
in connection with bay leaves, however, should be observed. A small 
amount gives a good flavor. It is usually used to season the thick sauces 
with which meats are served or in which they are allowed to simmer. 
While the term "curry" is usually employed to describe a particular 
mixture of spices made up for the trade, it has another meaning. The 
words "curry" or "curried" are sometimes used to describe highly sea- 
soned dishes of meat, eggs, or vegetables prepared by methods that have 
come from India or other parts of the East. 

India Curry. 

11/2 pounds veal. 2 onions or less. 

Vz cup of butter or drippings. Vz tablespoonful curry or less. 

Brown meat either without fat or with very little and cut into small 
pieces. 

Fry the onions in the butter, remove them, add the meat and curry 

76 



powder. Cover the meat with boiling water and coolc until tender. Serve 
with a border of rice. This dish is so savory that it can be made to go 
a long way by serving with a large amount of rice. The two onions and 
one-half tablespoonful of curry powder are the largest amount to be used. 
Many persons prefer less of each. 

In preparing the rice for this dish perhaps no better method can be 
given than that in an earlier bulletin of this series. 

"Wash 1 cupful of rice in several waters, rubbing the grains between 
the hands to remove all the dirt. Put the washed rice in a stewpan with 
2 V2 cupf uls of water and 1 teaspoonful of salt. Cover and place where 
the water will boil. Cook for twenty minutes, being careful not to let 
it burn. At the end of this time put the stewpan on a tripod or ring 
and cover the rice with a fold of cheese cloth. Let it continue to cook in 
this manner an hour, then turn into a hot vegetable dish. The rice will 
be tender, dry and sweet, and each grain will separate. During the whole 
process of cooking the rice must not be stin-ed. If a tablespoonful of 
butter is cut up and scattered over the rice when it has cooked twenty 
minutes the dish will be very much improved." 

The butter is not necessary when the rice is served with India curry 
but may be included in dishes where less fat is used. 

Curry of Veal. 

2 tablespoonfuils butter or drippings. 1 tablespoonful flour. 

3 V2 pounds veal. 1 teaspoonful curry powder. 
V2 onion, chopped. Salt and pepper. 

1 pint milk. 

Fry the onions in the butter or drippings, remove, and fry tlie veal 
until it is brown. Transfer the meat to the double boiler, cover with milk 
and cook until the meat is tender. Add the curry powder a short time 
before the meat is done and thicken the milk with flour before serving. 

SAUCES. 

The art of preparing savory gravies and sanees is more impor- 
tant in connection -with the serving of the cheaper meats than in 
connection with the cooking of the more expensive. 

There are a few general principles underlying the making of 
all sauces or gravies, whether the liquid used is water, milk, stock, 
tomato .iuice, or some combination of these. For ordinary gravy 

2 level tablespoonfuls of flour or 1% tablespoonfuls of cornstarch 
or arrowroot is suiflcient to thicken a cupful of liquid. This is true 
excepting when the flour is browned. In this case a])out one-half 
ta])lespoonful more should be allov\^ed, for browned flour does not 
thicken so well as unbrowned. The fat used may be butter or the 
drippings from the meat, the allowance being 2 ta])lespoonfuls to a 
cup of liquid. 

The easiest way to mix the ingredients is to heat the fat, add 
the flour, and cook until the mixture ceases to bubble, and then to 
add the liquid. This is a quick method and by using it there is little 
danger of getting a lumpy gravy. ]\Iany persons. howe\ cr, think it is 
not a wholesome method and prefer the old-fashioned one of thicken- 
ing the gravy by means of flour mixed with a little cold water. The 
latter method is of course not practicable for brown gravies. 

77 



Considering the large amount of discussion about the digesti- 
bility of fried food and of gravies made by heating flour in fat, a 
few words on the subject at this point may not be out of order. It 
is difficult to see how heating the fat before adding the flour can 
be unwholesome, unless the cook is unskillful enough to heat the fat 
so high that it begins to scorch. Overheated fat, as has already 
been pointed out, contains an acrid irritating substance called 
"acrolein," which may be readily considered to be unwholesome. 
It is without doubt the production of this body by overheating which 
has given fried food its bad name. Several ways of varying the 
flavor of gravies and sauces were suggested in the preceding section. 
One other should be especially mentioned here. 

The flavor of bro\\Tied flour. — Tlie good flavor of browned flour is 
often overlooked. If flour is cooked in fact until it is a dark brown color 
a distinctive and very agreeable flavor is obtained. This flavor combines 
very well with that of currant jelly, and a little jelly added to a brown 
gravy is a great improvement. The flavor of this should not be combined 
with that of onions or other highly flavored vegetables. A recipe for a 
dish which is made with brown sauce follows. 

Mock Venison. 

Cut cold mutton into thin slices and heat in a browu sauce made 
according to the following proportions: 

2 tablespoonfuls butter. 1 tablespoonful red-currant jelly. 

2 tablespoonfuls flour. 1 cupful water or stock. 

1 tablespoonful of bottled meat 

sauce (whichever is preferred). 

Brown the flour in the butter, add the water or stock slowly, and 
keep stirring. Then add the jelly and meat sauce and let the mixture 
boil up well. 



Meat is in general one of the most digestible of food materials. 
Recent experiments indicate that all kinds are thoroughly digested, 
less expensive cuts as well as the more costly. The higher priced 
cuts contain more of the so-called extractives or extractives of more 
])leasing quality, and it is these substances which not only give the 
meat its agreeable flavor, but also actually stimulate the digestive 
processes. They have, however, little if any nutritive value, and foi- 
persons with normal digestion the less expensive cuts, even if less 
rich in extractives, cooked and flavored in an appetizing way, may 
certainly be used to replace the more costlj^ cuts. 

Meat is undeniably one of the more expensive items in the food 
l)ill of the ordinary family, and for this reason it is important that 
it be bought and used to the best possible advantage. In rural com- 
munities co-operative slaughter-houses and storage houses are often 
useful not only in reducing the cost of meat, but in making fresh 
meat available in summer. If the size of her family or her storage 
facilities warrant, the housekeeper may find it advantageous to buy 

78 



the whole carcass of a small aiiiiiial, such as a pig or a lamb, or a 
large section of beef, thus securing better prices. Carefully following 
the market and taking advantage of any special opportunity that 
may offer also helps to reduce the expense for meat for the family 
in town. 

It is also important to reduce waste by using as much as possible 
of the bone, fat. and trimmings, not usually served with the meat 
itself. If nothing better can be done with them, the bones and 
trimmings can almost always be profitably used in the soup kettle 
and the fat can be saved for cooking, thus saving the more expensive 
butter and lard. The bits of meat not served with the main dish or 
remaining after the first serving can be seasoned and recooked in 
many palatable ways, or can be combined wdth vegetables, pie crust, 
or other materials, and thus the meat flavor may be extended over 
a large quantity of less expensive food with such combinations. 
Moreover, smaller quantities of meat can often ])e bought than would 
be necessary were the meat served alone. 

Different kinds and cuts of meat vary considerably in price. 
Sometimes the cheaper cuts contain a larger proportion of refuse 
than the more expensive, and the apparent cost is less than the actual 
cost of the edible portion. Aside from this the advantage of the 
more expensive cuts lies in tenderness and flavor rather than in 
nutritive value. Tenderness depends on the character of the muscle 
fibers and connective tissues of which the meat is composed. Flavor 
depends partly on the fat present in the tissues, but mainly on 
nitrogenous bodies known as extractives, which are usually more 
abundant or of more agreeable flavor in the more tender parts of 
the animal. The heat of cooking dissolves the connective tissues of 
tough meat and in a measure makes it more tender, but heat above 
the boiling point or even a little lower tends to change the texture 
of muscle fibers. Hence tough meats must be carefully cooked in 
low heat long applied in order to soften the connective tissue wnthout 
unduly changing the fibers. Cooking, especially in water, presents 
a further danger, namely, the escape into the water of the nutritious 
]naterial in the meat. In cases w^here the liquid in which the meat is 
cooked is to be used, as in soups and some stew^s, this is of less 
importance or it may even be an advantage, but where the meat only 
is to be used the fact must always be taken into consideration. Not 
only is the amount of nutritive material in the meat lessened, but 
the extractives are lost and with them more or less of the flavor 
the meat originally possessed. To lessen the chances of loss, cooks 
frequently sear the exterior of the. meat either in hot fat or in 
boiling water before beginning the long cooking, or tough meat may 
be pounded or chopped to break down the tissues to a certain extent, 
and thus permit shorter cooking. Besides using such devices to 
retain and develop the natural flavor of the meat, other flavors may 
be added to supplement them. These may be put into the meat 
before cooking or may be added later in the form of relish or sauce. 

79 



Vegetables of distinctive flavor such as jonions, carrots, or celery ; 
savory herbs such as parsley, sage, bay leaf, or thyme; and materials 
such as vinegar, pickles, or currant jelly; spices such as pepper, 
cloves, or "curry" mixtures; and sharp or highly seasoned meat 
sauces are all types of flavoring materials Avhieh are useful for such 
purposes and which may be used in a great variety of ways. 

In fact the number of "tasty" dishes which a good cook can 
make out of the cheaper cuts of meat or meat "left over" is almost 
endless. Undoubtedly more time and skill are required in their 
preparation than in the simple cooking of the more expensive cuts, 
just as more time and skill are required for careful, intelligent mar- 
keting than for haphazard ordering; but the real superiority of a 
good cook lies not so much in the preparation of expensive or fancy 
dishes as in the attractive preparation of inexpensive dishes for 
every day and in the skillful combination of flavors. 

—Extract, Fanners Bullrtin .^9/ . 



80 



General Rules for Vegetables 

Wash thoroughly, pare and scrape, if skins must he removed. Keep 
in cold water until cooked, to keep them crisp and to prevent their being 
discolored. Cook in boiling water; the water must be kept at the boiling 
point. Use 2 t. salt with 2 qts. water; put the salt into the water when 
the vegetables are tender. The water in which vegetables are cooked 
is called vegetable stock. 

Fresh green vegetables require less water than others. 

Cabbage, cauliflower, onions and turnips should be cooked uncovered 
in a large amount of water. 

All vegetables must be drained as soon as tender. Season with salt 
and pepper and serve hot with butter or sauce. 

Cold vegetables may be used for salads, or may be placed in a baking 
dish with one-half the quantity of sauce (2 c. vegetables and 1 c. sauce) 
covered with buttered crumbs, and browned in a hot oven. 

BOILED CABBAGE. 

Trim off the limp outside leaves of a cabbage; cut into eight pieces, 
or if it must be cooked quickly, shave into smaller pieces. Put it into a 
kettle filled with boiling water and cook until tender. Do not cover the 
kettle, and there will be very little of the cabbage odor in the house. A 
young cabbage requires about 40 m. to cook — 2 0m. if shaved. 

When the cabbage is done drain the water off and season. 

WHITE SAUCE. 

2 T. butter, 1/2 t. salt, 

2 T. flour, y4: ssp. pepper. 

1 c. milk. 

Melt the butter in a sauce pan, add flour and seasonings and when 
bubbling, add the milk, stir constantly until the mixture thickens. 
Keep hot over boiling water. 
In making a large quantity of sauce scald the milk to save time. 

BROWN SAUCE. 

2 T. butter, i^ t. salt, 

2 1/^ T. flour, 1/4 ssp. pepper. 

1 c. milk. 

Brown the butter and flour together and proceed as in white sauce. 

CREAMED TURNIPS. 

Wash and pare turnips and cut little one-half inch cubes. Cook three 
cups of turnips in boiling water about twenty minutes or until tender. 
Drain and add one cup of white sauce. 

CARROTS WITH BROWN SAUCE. 

To prepare carrots for cooking, wash and scrape, as best flavor and 
brightest color are near the skin. Cut into cubes and cook in boiling 
water about twenty minutes or until tender. Drain and add brown sauce, 
using one cup of sauce to one cup of vegetables. 

N. B. — 2 T. flour will thicken 1 c. liquid. 

«1 



TIME TABLE FOR COOKING VEGETABLES 



Potatoes, white 20 to 30 m. 

Potatoes, sweet 15 to 25 m. 

Asparagus i^ to 1 hr. 

String beans 30 m. to 2 hr. 

Beets 45 m. to 3 hr. 

Cabbage 20 to 40 m. 

Turnips 30 to 40 m. 

Onions 30 to 60 m. 

Kohlrabi 30 to 4 m. 

* Served same as vegetables. 



Parsnips 15 to 4 5 m. 

Green Corn 12 to 20 m. 

Cauliflower 20to25n]. 

Tomatoes 15 to 20 m. 

*Boiled rice 30 m. 

* Steamed rice 40to50m. 

*Macaroni 30 to 40 m. 

Dried Lima Beans 1 hr. 

Young Lima Beans. ... 25 to 30 m. 



DAINTY WAY TO SERVE CABBAGE. 

Cut out the heart stem and core of a medium sized cabbage, and 
remove the outer leaves. Plunge the head into an abundance of boiling 
water for four minutes, and take it up very carefully, so as not to break 
it. Let it cool. Prepare a force meat, using a pound of sausage Avith a 
quarter of a pound of lean veal ground to a pulp and seasoned to taste. 
Stuff the inside of the head, and tie it up carefully, so that the stuffing 
will not come out. Put into a pan with a small carrot, a small onion, 
and a cupful of stock or milk. Let it simmer in the oven or on top 
of the stove, well covered. Baste occasionally and serve with rich brown 
sauce. 



82 



Weights and Measures for a Cook 

Bj' James H. Hubbard. 



1 pound wheat flour is eciual to 1 quart. 

1 pound and 2 ounces of Indian meal make 1 quart. 

1 pound of soft butter is equal to 1 quart. 

1 pound and 2 ounces of brown sugar make 1 quart. 

1 pound and 1 ounce of powdered sugar make 1 quart. 

1 pound of broken loaf sugar is equal to one quart. 

S large tablespoonfuls make 1 gill. 

1 common sized tumbler holds 1 pint. 

1 teacup holds 1 gill. 

] large size wine glass holds 2 ounces. 

1 tablespoonful is equal to V2 ounce. 



TIME TABLE FOR BAKING 

Beans (if prepared by soaking and boiling) 3 to 4 hours. 

Beef sirloin or rib, rare, weight 5 pounds, 1 hour 5 minutes. 

Beef sirloin or rib, well done, weight 5 pounds, 1 hour 4 minutes. 

Beef rump, rare, weight 10 pounds, 1 hour 35 minutes. 

Biscuits, raised, 12 to 20 minutes. 

Biscuits, baking powder, 12 to 15 minutes. 

Bread, white, loaf, 45 to 60 minutes. 

Bread, graham, loaf, 35 to 45 minutes. 

Cake, layer, 15 to 25 minutes. 

Cake, loaf, 40 to 60 minutes. 

Cake, sponge, 45 to 60 minutes. 

Chicken, 3 to 4 pounds, 1% to 2 hours. 

Cookies, 6 to 10 minutes. 

Custard (baked in cups), 20 to 25 minutes. 

Duck (domestic), 1 to 1^ hours. 

Duck (wild), 20 to 30 minutes. 

Pish (thick), 3 to 4 pounds, 45 to 60 minutes. 

Fish (small), 20 to 30 minutes. 

Gingerbread, 25 to 35 minutes. 

Leg of Lamb, well done, 1 1/^ to 2 hours. 

Mutton, 1^ to 2 hours. 

Pork, well done, 4 pounds, 2 hours. 

Potatoes, 35 to 50 minutes. 

Puddings, rice or bread, 4 5 to 60 minutes. 

Veal Leg, well done, per pound, 20 minutes. 



83 



Sandwiches 



The most important item of the lunch basket is the sandwiches, the 
names and ingredient's of which are numberless. 

Success is not so much in the ingredients as in the making. The 
bread should be a' least 2 4 hours old. Carefully trim the loaf on all 
sides. Placing it lengthwise on the table, butter with previously creamed 
butter necessary to make it spread evenly. Cut the slices lengthwise 
of the loaf, thus avoiding crumbs. The most economical shapes are 
strips, squares and triangles, but fancy shapes may be made with cookie 
cutters. All kinds of bread may be used alone or in combination. Variety 
may be given by adding very finely chopped chive's, onions, pickles, olives, 
mint or parsley, to be creamed with butter. Never use a very moist filling 
for sandwiches that are to be kept any length of time. 

RIBBON SANDWICHES. 

Take three square thin slices of white bread and two corresponding 
slices of whole wheat bread. Butter a slice of white and cover it with a 
filling made of egg paste, then put upon it a slice of whole wheat bread 
and butter that and cover with egg paste. 

On top of that place another slice of white bread and repeat the opera- 
tion with white bread and whole wheat bread, alternating until you have 
used all your five slices. 

With a sharp knife cut the whole into narrow strips and your sand- 
wiches are ready. 

First in point of keeping quality are the ham, chicken and tongue 
sandwiches. 

Next comes the cheese and nut combination, then those containing 
sweets. 

Never use a filling containing salad dressing unless the sandwiches 
are to be used at once. 

When sandwiches are made in quantity and kept for several hours, 
they should be covered with a damp cloth which should then be covered 
with a dry one. 

PASTRY AND SWEETS. 

. Next in importance is the selection of pastry and sweets. Individual 
pies and patties should be used in preference to the larger ones, and 
these should be carefully wrapped in paraffine paper and packed in a box. 

OTHER ACCESSORIES. 

Olives, pickles, etc., are carried in original packages. Candy and 
bon bons in small boxes. Eggs are well cooked, seasoned and each 
wrapped in paraffine paper. Ripe fruit is very acceptable and easily 
carried, but avoid fruits with strong odor like pineapple and bananas. 

84 



Salads and Salad Dressings 



All green salads should be chilled before serving that they may be 
crisp. Add dressing to green salads just before using; if put on sooner 
it softens the leaves and spoils both taste and appearance. The salad 
bowl may be rubbed with a cut onion or a few drops of onion juice 
(obtained by rubbing a cut onion on grater) can be added to salad. 

In preparing salads from meat and fish an almost endless variety 
of flavors can be obtained by a careful blending of seasonings to suit the 
principal ingredients of the salad itself. Few better salads can be eaten 
than those made from fragments of cold roast lamb cut into dice, mixed 
with a cup of cooked peas and a little finely chopped mint. If the lamb 
be boiled, substitute a few chopped capers for the mint; with cold pork, 
have a sprinkling of sage and an equal quantity of diced celery; with fish, 
plenty of lemon juice and cucumber. 

These salads are all served with a dressing, either French, boiled 
or mayonnaise, as best suits the salad and the convenience of the maker. 

Fruit salads are frequently served at luncheon — sometimes as a 
first course. 

RULES FOR SALAD MAKING. 

1. All salads are likely to be dry, as well as those having no dom- 
inating flavor, are better if they are marinated with a French dressing 
sometime before serving in addition to the dressing added at table. 

2. It is not enough to wash the salad plants; they must be dried 
also, for the water dripping from the leaves in the serving dish woi^ld 
thin the dressing and make it insiped. 

3. A good portion of the dressing must be mixed with the salad, 
not all poured over the top. 

POTATO AND EGG SALAD. 

3 eggs, Salt and pepper to taste, 

3 medium sized potatoes, French dressing. 

Cook the eggs hard, remove shells and finely chop, and to prevent 
eggs being discolored, use a silver knife. Cook potatoes and chop finely 
and add eggs and mayonnaise and let stand one hour on ice to chill; 
serve on lettuce leaf. 

IVLIYONNAISE DRESSING. 

1 egg yolk, 4 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 
Vz pint olive oil, or vinegar, 

1/4 teaspoonful paprika % teaspoonful salt, 
or white pepper, 

Break the yolk of the egg into a dry cold bowl and beat a little. 
At first add the oil to the egg very slowly (a few drops at a time) and 

85 



as the dressing begins to thicken, the oil may be added more rapidly till, 
at the last, a teaspoonful at a time may be stirred in. The dreissing 
must be stirred while the oil is being added, either with a spoon, fork 
or wire egg beater. Add the vinegar slowly, continuing the beating while 
it is being mixed. It is better not to add the salt and pepper till the 
mayonnaise is to be used, because it keeps better if the seasoning is 
omitted. In any case, even when the dressing is to be used at once, do 
not add the seasoning till the oil and vinegar, or lemon, are added to 
the egg. 

Tarragon or other flavored vinegars such as mint, may be substi- 
tuted, in whole or in part, for the plain vinegar or lemon juice. Keep 
mayonnaise in a cool, dark place. 

FRENCH DRESSING. 

4 tablespoonfuls olive oil. 
1 % tablespoonf ul vinegar. 

Ys teaspoonful salt. 

%, teaspoonful paprika or pepper. 
1 teaspoonful mixed mustard, if liked. 

Mix the salt and pepper in a shallow dish or saucer; add the mustard, 
if it is to be used, and pour in the oil. Stir well to mix with the seasonings 
and add the vinegar, a little at a time, beating the mixture with a fork, 
continuously. Serve as soon as mixed. 

BOILED SAIjAD DRESSING. 

2 tablespoons butter. 2 tablespoonfuls sugar. 

2 eggs. 1 teaspoonful dry mustard. 

1 cup vinegar. % teaspoonful salt. 

% teaspoonful pepper. 2 T. cream. 

Put the butter, sugar, eggs, mustard, salt and pepper into a bowl or 
the inner part of a double boiler and cook over hot water until they begin 
to thicken. Add the vinegar and continue the cooking three minutes. 
Beat the mixture occasionally while cooling. Keep in a cool, dark 
place. This dressing will remain good several weeks. 



86 



Freezing 



General Rules. 

The can, cover and dasher of the freezer should be scalded and then 
chilled before the mixture which is to be frozen is placed in it. Adjusit 
the can carefully in the tub before packing. Pour in the mixture, put 
in the dasher, cover, adjuist the crank and pack with finely chopped ice 
and rock salt; this must be higher around the can than the mixture is on 
the inside. 

Use three times as much ice as salt for freezing; use four times as 
much ice as salt in packing. 

In freezing ice cream the crank should be turned slowly and steadiily; 
in freezing sherbet the crank should be turned rapidly and steadily; In 
freezing water ice, or frozen fruit, turn the crank steadily 5 m., allow it 
to stand 5 m., turn again 5 m., and continue until freezing is completed. 

When the mixture is frozen, remove ice and salt from around the top 
of the can; wipe cover and top, uncover and remove dasher, scrape it; 
place paraffine paper or heavy paper over can; cover and put a cork in the 
hole. Repack the freezer, putting ice and salt over the top, cover with a 
carpet, blanket or newspaper, or pack in fireless cooker, and allow it to 
stand in a cold place several hours. 

A tightly covered tin can and a wooden pail may be substituted for 
an ice cream freezer, using a wooden spoon or paddle to scrape the mix- 
ture from the sides and bottom of the can as it freezes. 

In preparing frozen fruit or water ice the sugar and water should 
be made into syrup, which should be boiled 5 m., then strained; in (pre- 
paring ice cream with fruit, the sugar and crushed fruit should stand 1 hr. 
in a cool place, or until the sugar is dissolved, then add cream and freeze; 
in preparing ice creams without fruit, the cream should be scalded and the 
sugar dissolved in it, cool, add flavoring and freeze. 

Fruit juice is used for water ice; the fruit is pressed through a col- 
ander or cut in small pieces with a silver knife for frozen fruit; either 
juice or crushed fruit may be used for ice cream; it is preferable to aise 
only the juice of very seedy fruits. 



87 



Ice Cream 

General Rules 

The can, cover and dasher of the freezer should be .scalded and then 
chilled before the mixture which is to be frozen is placed in it. Adjust 
the can carefully in the tub before packing. Pour in the mixture, put in 
the dasher, cover, adjust the crank and pack with finely chopped ice and 
rock salt; this must be higher around the can than the mixture is on the 
inside. 

Use three times as much ice as salt for freezing; use four times as 
much ice as salt in packing. 

In freezing ice cream the crank should be turned slowly and steadily; 
in freezing sherbet the crank should be turned rapidly and steadily; in 
freezing water ice or frozen fruit, turn the erauk steadily 5 m., allow to 
stand 5 m., turn again 5 m., and continue until freezing is completed. 

When mixture is frozen, remove ice and salt from around the top of 
the can; wipe the cover and top, uncover and remove dasher, scrape it; 
then beat frozen mixture with wooden spoon or paddle; place paraffine 
paper or heavy paper over can; cover and put a cork in the hole. Repack 
the freezer, putting ice and salt over the top, cover with a carpet, blanket 
or newspaper, and allow it to stand in a cold place several hours. 

A tightly covered tin can and a wooden pail may be substituted for 
an ice cream freezer, using a wooden spoon or paddle to scrape the mix- 
ture from the sides and bottom of the can as it freezes. 

In preparing frozen fruit or water ice the sugar and water should be 
made into a syrup, which should be boiled 5 m., then strained; in prepar- 
ing ice cream with fruit, the sugar and crushed fruit should stand 1 hr. 
in a cool place, or until the sugar is dissolved, then add cream and freeze; 
in preparing ice creams without fruit the cream should be scalded and the 
sugar dissolved in it, cool, add flavoring and freeze. 

Fruit juice is used for water ice; the fruit is pressed through a col- 
ander or cut in small pieces with a silver knife for frozen fruit; either 
juice or crushed fruit may be used for ice cream; it is preferable to use 
only the juice of very seedy fruits. 

VANILL.A ICE CREAJVI, No. 1. 

1 qt. cream, 1 c. sugar, 

1 or 2 c. milk, 2 t. vanilla. 

VANILIiA ICE CREAM, No. 2 

2 c. scalded milk, 1 T. flour, 
1 egg, 1 c. sugar, 

Vs t. salt, 1 qt. thin cream, 

2 t. vanilla. 

Mix flour, sugar and salt; add egg slightly beaten, and milk, gradu- 
ally. Cook over hot water 20 m., stirring constantly at first. When cool, 
add flavoring and cream; strain and freeze. 

CHOCOLATE ICE CREAM. 

Add 2 oz. of bitter chocolate to vanilla ice cream mixture. 

STRAWBERRY ICE CREAM 

1 qt. thin cream, a box strawberries. 
% c. sugar. 

Wash and hull berries. Sprinkle with .sugar. Let stand one hour; 
mash and rub through a strainer. Add the cream and freeze. 



IVnLK SHERBET 

% c. lemon juice, 2 c. sugar, 

1 qt. milk. 



LEMON ICE 

4 c. water, 2 c. sugar, 

% c. lemon juice. 

Make a syrup by boiling water and sugar 2 m., add lemon juice; 
cool, strain and freeze, same as ice cream. 



ORANBERRY FRAPPE 

One quart cranberries, two cups water, two cups sugar, juice of two 
lemons. Cook the berries in the water eight minutes, strain; add sugar 
and bring to the boiling point. Cool, add lemon juice and freeze to a 
mush, using equal quantities of salt and ice. 



STRAWBERRY ICE 



4 c. water, 
1 Vz c. sugar. 



2 c. strawberry juice, 
1 T. lemon juice. 



Make a syrup as for lemon ice; cool, add strawberries crushed and 
squeezed through a double cheesecloth; add lemon juice; strain and 
freeze. 



GRAPE FRAPPE 



4 c. water, 
2 c. sugar. 



y* 



2 c. grape juice, 
% c. orange juice, 
c. lemon juice. 



Make a syrup by boiling water and sugar 15 m.; add grape, lemon and 
orange juice; cool, strain and freeze to a mush, using equal parts of ice 
and salt. 



89 



The Chemistry of a Cup of Tea 



"These statements are made on the authority of the 'Lancet,' which 
recently published a long article on the chem.istry of tea." 

There are two substances in tea which give it its flavor and its stim- 
ulating effects. These are caffeine and tannin. They may exist in chem- 
ical combination or separately. In combination they are caffeine-tannate, 
which contains one part of caffeine and three of tannin. In this case there 
is nothing injvirious about them, if these two alkaloids are free — that is not 
in chemical combination — they may be highly injurious, for'tannin is one 
of the most powerful astringents known, and its effect upon meat or any 
animal substance is to turn it to leather. 

A good tea, properly made, yields an infusion in which the caffeine 
and tannin are properly combined. A bad tea or a good one badly made, 
may contain an excess of caffeine, in which case it is disagreeably bitter; 
or an excess of tannin, in which case it acts in a way that prevents diges- 
tion. 

If tea be boiled or allowed to stand too long a point is reached when 
the tannin appears in excess. The Lancet shows that a five minutes' infu- 
sion of an ordinary Indian tea showed a total tannin content 9.24 per cent 
and caffeine 3.70 per cent. On infusing the same tea for an hour, the tan- 
nin amounted to 16.12 per cent and the caffeine 4.40 per cent. The for- 
mer was wholesome, the latter pernicious. 

No tea should ever be boiled. There is only one proper way to make 
tea; take fresh water, the instant it boils, pour it upon the leaves in a 
previously heated pot. Pour off in five minutes, or even less, depending 
on how strong you like it. After five minutes the tannin begins to come 
out and the tea becomes injurious. 



90 



Chemistry of Coffee 



A high grade coffee, perfectly roasted, properly ground, requires 
twelve ounces to the gallon for morning coffee, while for after dinner 
coffee, >vhich is generally served en demi-tasse, sixteen ounces to the gal- 
lon are required; fresh boiling water the moment it reaches the bubbling 
point, then only a little at first to open the pores of the coffee and get 
it ready to receive the remainder, which is to be put on a little at a time 
until all the good and none of the bitterness (tannin) is extracted, for 
if it be too strong it can be easily diluted with boiling water when in 
cups — hot cups first, then the sugar, then warmed (not boiled) milk, then 
the coffee, and if you can afford it, put on the top a teaspoonful of whipped 
cream. 

Coffee made in a metal vessel forms "tannate of iron" which is the 
tannin eating the metal, an ink, so to speak, and if let stand over night 
makes a very fair writing fluid. 

BOILED COFFEE. 

For 4 heaping tablespoons ground coffee allow 1 quart freshly boil- 
ing water and V2 white 1 raw egg. Mix the egg white with 3 table- 
spoons cold water, beating with fork. Add coffee and stir till well wet. 
Scald coffee pot, put in prepared coffee. Pour in boiling water, cover 
spout, and boil 5 minutes. Pour in quickly i/4 cup cold water, let stand 
3 minutes to settle. Strain into hot pot or have strainer on table. 

COFFEE FOR SIX PERSONS. 

Take 1 full cup ground coffee, 1 egg, a little cold water, stir together, 
add 1 pint boiling water, boil up; then add another pint boiling water, 
and set back to settle before serving; add speck salt. 

FRENCH COFFEE. 

One quart water to 1 cup very fine ground coffee. Put coffee grounds 
in bowl; pour over about i/^ pint cold water and let stand 15 minutes; 
bring remaining water to a boil; take coffee in bowl, strain through fine 
sieve, then take French coffee pot, put coffee grounds in strainer at top 
of French pot, leaving water in bowl. Then take boiling water and pour 
over coffee very slowly. Then set coffee pot on stove 5 minutes; must not 
boil. Take off and pour in cold water from bowl that coffee was first 
soaked in to settle. Serve in another pot. The French, who have the 
reputation of making the best coffee, use 3 parts Java, 1 part Mocha. 

VIENNA COFFEE. 

Equal parts Mocha and Java Coffee; allow 1 heaping tablespoon of 
coffee to each person, and two extra to make good strength. Mix one 
egg with grounds, pour on coffee one-half as much boiling water as will 
be needed, let coffee froth, then stir down grounds and let boil 5 minutes; 
then let coffee stand where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 5 or 10 min- 
utes; and add rest of water. To 1 pint cream add white of an egg, well 
beaten; this is to be put in cups with sugar, and hot coffee added. 

COOOA. 

The usual rule is, one teaspoon cocoa to each cup. Mix dry cocoa 
with little cold water, add scalded milk or boiling water, and boil one 
minute. 

91 



Candy 



The best and easiest v/ay is to learn thorouglily the four candy 
stages and then the candy maker will be independent of everything. 
These stages are: the soft ball stage, used in fondant, fudge and all kinds 
of cream candies; the hard ball stage, used in caramels; the crack stage, 
used in taffy, and the caramel, used with glace nuts and fruit and 
peanut brittle, 

Fondant, the basis of dozens of candies is cooked to the soft ball 
stage and is the hardest of all candies to make. The whole secret is to 
prevent the syrup sugaring. This may be prevented in several ways. 
The easiest way is to add a spoonful of glucose or corn syrup to the other 
ingredients, or a little acid, such as cream of tartar, lemon juice or vinegar 
may be added, and this will change a small part of the sugar substance 
like corn syrup and thus make it smoother in texture. 



CREAM PASTE. 

2 lbs. granulated sugar i/4 lb. of glucose, 

2 cupfuls of water, ^/4 lb. of nut meats, 

% lb. of butter, V2 teaspoonful of vanilla. 

When the syrup has been cooked to the soft ball stage, pour it 
quickly into a large flat pan or bowl and set in a cold place. When 
cool stir until waxy, then add the nuts and flavoring. Knead until smooth 
and like dough. Slice or cut in cubes. 



FOUR HARDENING STAGES. 

The second stage is a hard ball. Candies of this kind usually con- 
tain a considerable amount of butter and therefore give no trouble from 
sugaring off. Care must be exercised not to cook the candy too long 
and burn it as it only takes a few minutes to pass from the soft ball 
stage to the hard ball stage. When the spoonful of candy dropped into 
cold water forms a hard ball which can barely be dented by the thumb 
and first finger the candy is done. 

The third stage is the crack or taffy stage. Acid is used to prevent 
crystalization. This is a very easy stage to tell. A little of the candy is 
dropped into cold water and forms long threads which break and snap 
instead of bending. 

The fourth stage, that of caramelization, is easy to tell because 
there is a slight change in color. If the sugar and water are boiled 
together and no acid added to prevent sugaring then the same care must 

92 



be used to wash down the crystals from one side of the pan as in case 
of the fondant. Sometimes as in the case of peanut brittle, no water is 
added and the sugar is melted done. In this case care must be taken to 
stir it well and not allow part of the sugar to become darker brown than 
another part. 



COOKED TO THE HAUJ) BALL STAGE. 
CHOCOLATE CARAMELS. 

2 cupfuls of brown sugar 2 to 4 squares of chocolate 

yz cupful milk or cream, y^, cupful of butter 

l^ cupful molasses 1 teaspoonful of vinalla. 



C(X)KEI) TO THE CHACK STAGE. 
SUGAR TAFFY. 

3 cupfuls of granulated 2 tablespoonfuls of butter, 

sugar 
1 cupful of boiling water 1 teaspoonful of vanilla 

1 tablespoonful of vine- ^ teaspoonful of lemon. 

gar. 

Cook the sugar, water, vinegar and butter to the crack stage. Add 
flavorings and turn into buttered pans. AVhen partly cool, pull and cut 
into pieces one inch in length. 



93 



Food Preservation 

Extract froDi Fanners Bulletin Xo. .^15, U. S. Dcparniicnl of /liiriiulturr. 



The preservation of food in the home is a very important part of 
the housekeeper's responsibility. 
Why do foods spoil? 

1. Because of living organisms in or on food. 

2. Micro Organisms, as mold plant, yeast plant and bacteria, which 
require warmth, moisture, light, oxygen and food to develop and grow in. 

Although yeast plants, mold plants, and bacteria are not perceived 
by the naked eye (only by aid of microscope) we are all familiar with 
the products of their growth and activities as they grow everywhere, on 
ground, in water, and in air. 

HOW TO PREVENT FOOD FROM SPOILING. 

1. By means of low temperatures. 

2. By means of high temperatures. 

3. By means of preservatives (chemicals). 

4. By means of removal of moisture. 
By low temperatures as follows: 

(1). Cold storage. 
(2). Use of refrigerators. 
(3). Ice houses. 

(4). Cellars — Conditions to be considered — Ventilation, hu- 
midity, temperature. 
By high temperatures: 

Canning — Intermittent process. 

Harmful Preserving Substances 

\ Borax and Boric Acid; Salicylic-Acid and Salicylates; Benzuatic 
Chemicals : •< Acid and Benzoates; Sulphur and Sulphites; Copper^Used in 
I ^"egetables, Fruits and Meats. 

Harmless Preservatives 

f Sugar 

Salt 

Vinegar 
[ Spices 

Doubtful 

\ Saltpetre 
\ Smoke 

The purpose of using the above preservatives in foods is to save la- 
bor and to make it possible to use an inferior grade of material by neu- 
tralizing in a degree tlie presence and ill effects of decomposition and 
growths of micro-organisms, viz: Mold plants, bacteria and yeasts, which 
has become contaminated by exposure and unsanitary conditions. 

THE PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF PRESERVATIVES. (Chemicals.) 

The use of poisonous chemicals in our food is strongly objected to 
by scientific authority. 

Because in the majority of cases they act as a sediment which causes 
the system undue taxation which falls principally upon the kidneys (fil- 
terers of the body), and also because they create disturbances of appe- 
tite and digestion. 

— Extract, National Food Magazine. 
94 



Method of Canning by the Intermittent Process 



The Intermittent Process is the sterilization by intermittent heat, 
whose purpose it is to destroy the micro-organisms, both in the spore and 
vegetable stages. 

Fruits and tomatoes require less sterilization because they contain 
a high content of acidity which adds materially to the destruction of 
germids. 

Only good material should be used (fruits and vegetables). 

Coarse grained sugar is preferable as it is more soluble than fine 
grained sugar. 

To be used when sterilization by intermittent heat is necessary, a 
natural flavor is the object, and a rich, highly sweetened product is not 
desired: 

1. Pack the prepared fryit or vegetable firmly in the can to within one- 

half inch of top. Care should be taken not to bruise, injure, nor 
crush soft fruits. 

2 . Add sugar or salt according to the food canned. 

For vegetables, add Yz to 1 teaspoon salt to each quart of vege- 
tables; if sugar is desired, as in beets and peas, add 1 to 2 
teaspoons. 
For each quart can of fruit use: 

To make very sweet, 1 cup, or S ounces, of sugar. 
To make moderately sweet, % cup, or 4 ounces, of sugar. 
To make slightly sweet, %: cup, or 2 ounces, of sugar. 
(Fruits may be canned without any sugar.) 
The sugar may be sprinkled over the fruit after the fruit is placed 
in the can; but a better method is to make a sirup by cooking 
the sugar with water for 1 to 2 minutes, using 2 14 to 3 cups of 
water for each quart can of fruit. 
;! . For vegetables, fill the can, packed as directed, completely full of 
clean, cold water. For fruits, if the sugar has been sprinkled 
over the fruit, fill the can full of clean, cold water; if the sugar 
has been made into a sirup, fill the can completely full of sirup. 
4 . Place a new rubber on the can and adjust the top of the can, but 

do not seal it. 
5 . Place cans on slats of wood or other perforated support in the bot- 
tom of the boiler or cooking vessel. 

6 . Pour enough cold water into the vessel to cover the jars to a depth 

of two to three inches. 

7. Bring the water to the boiling point and boil 5 to 20 minutes, ac- 

cording to the kind of fruit or vegetable, then seal the can. 

8. After the cans are sealed, boil 10 to 45 minutes, according to the 

kind of food canned. 
9 . Remove cans from the vessel, set them aside out of any draught, 
and let them cool. Let them stand 24 hours in a warm room. 

10. On the second day, return the cans to the boiler, prepared as pre- 

viously directed with perforated rack and water, and, without 
loosening the seal of the can, bring the water to the boiling 
point and boil 5 to 60 minutes, according to the food to be 
cooked. 

11. Remove cans from the boiler, cool, and let stand as before. 

12. On the third day, cook as on the previous day, 10 to 60 minutes, 

according to the food to be prepared. 

13. Remove from the boiler, cool, wash outside of can thoroughly, label, 

and set away. 

95 



TABLE OF DIRECTIONS FOK CANNING FOOD 



Food 



Special preparation before 
canning 



Time of cooking (minutes) 



Before 
sealing: 



Apples 

Blackberries 

Cherries . . . . 

Grapes 

Huckleberries 

Plums 

Peaches . . . . 

Pears 

Quinces . . . . 
Uaspbcrries 
Khubarb . . . 
Strawberries 
Asparagus* . 

Ueets* 

P.oans, Lima* 
Bcaus, string' 

Corn* 

Eggplant . . . 

Peas* 

Pumpkin* . . 
Spinach .... 



Succotash 
Corn 2-3 
Beans 1-3 

Sweet potatoes. 



Tomatoes 



Tomato mixture. 
Corn 1-3 
Tomatoes 2-3 



Peel, quarter, and core 

Remove stem, leaves, trash, nad 
imperfect berries 

Seed or leave whole 

Pick from stem 

Remove leaves, trash, and im- 
perfect berries 

Leave whole or cut in halves. . . 

Peel, can whole, in halves, or 
in quarters 

Peel, cut in halves or quarters, 
and core 

Peel, quarter, and core 

Remove stems 

Cut in 1%-inch pieces 

Stem 

Cut in lengths to fit jar, par- 
boil 5 minutes, and drain . . . 

Boil until skin is easily re- 
moved. Can whole, in slices, 
or in quarters 

Hull by hand 

Remove strings, cut into 1-inch 
pieces. Boil 5 minutes and 
drain before putting into cans 

Cut grains from cob and scrape 
cob, or score grains before 
cutting from the cob 

Cut in thin slices, drop in boil- 
ing water, and let stand 15 
to 20 minutes. Drain and 
pack in jar 

Shell. Boil 5 minutes. Re 
move wrinkled peas. Put 
into cans 

Peel, cut into small blocks.... 

Wash free from all sand and 
grit. Remove discolored 
leaves. Boil 5 minutes. Drain 
and pack in jars 

Prepare corn and beans as di- 
rected 

Boil until skins will peel off. 
Cut in convenient sizes to 
fit cans 

Scald for 5 minutes. Remove 
skins. Save any juice escap- 
ing 

Prepare each as directed above 
and mix 



10 



10 
10 

5 
10 

10 

10 
10 

5 

10 

5 

15 



15 
15 



15 
15 

15 



15 
15 



10 
15 

15 

10 
15 



After 
sealing 



15 

5 
10 
10 

10 
10 

10 

15 

20 

5 

10 



45 
45 



45 
45 

45 



45 
45 



30 

45 

45 

20 
45 



Second and 
third days 



25 

10 
20 
20 

15 
20 

20 



30 
10 
20 
10 

GO 



60 
60 



60 
60 

60 



60 
60 



40 



60 

30 

00 



* To insure success, those foods that are starred require the three-day cooking, or 
should be steamed one day only for 2 to 4 hours. The intermittent cooking is not 
only more likely to be safe, but it will give a better product. 

For apples, cherries, grapes, plums, peaches, pears, quinces, raspber- 
ries, rhubarb, and tomatoes, a one-day cooking is generally safe; 30 to 
4 minutes on the first day, and the second and third-day cooking to be 
omitted. 

—E.x tract, Fanners Bulletin. U. S. Agree ult ural Dedart men t, II'. D. 

96 



PRINCIPLES OF CANNING AND PRESERVING. 

In the preservation of foods by canning, preserving, etc., the 
most essential things in the processes are the sterilization of the 
food and all the utensils and the sealing of the sterilized food to 
exclude all germs. 

BACTERIA, YEASTS, AND FERMENTATION. 

Over one hundred years ago Francois Appert was the first to 
make practical application of the method of preserving food by 
putting it in cans or bottles, which he hermetically sealed. He then 
put the full bottles or cans in Avater and boiled them for more or 
less time, depending upon the kinds of food. 

In Appert 's time and, indeed, until recent years it was generally 
thought that the oxygen of the air caused the decomposition of food. 
Appert 's theory was that the things essential to the preservation of 
food in this manner were the exclusion of air and the application 
of gentle heat, as in the water bath, which caused a fusion of the 
principal constituents and ferments in such a manner that the power 
of the ferments was destroyed. 

The investigations of scientists, particularly of Pasteur, have 
shown that it is not the oxygen of the air which causes fermentation 
and putrefaction, but bacteria and other microscopic organisms. 

Appert 's theory as to the cause of the spoiling of food was 
incorrect, but his method of preserving it by sealing and cooking was 
correct, and the world owes him a debt of gratitude. 

In their investigations scientists have found that if food is 
perfectly sterilized and the opening of the jar or bottle plugged 
with sterilized cotton, food will not ferment, for the bacteria and 
yeasts to which such changes are due can not pass through the 
cotton. This method can not be conveniently folloM^ed with large 
jars. 

Bacteria and yeasts exist in the air, in the soil, and on all 
vegetable and animal substances, and even in the living body, but 
although of such universal occurrence, the true knowledge of their 
nature and economic importance has only been gained during the 
last forty years. 

There are a great many kinds of these micro-organisms. Some 
do great harm, but it is thought that the greater part of them are 
beneficial rather than injurious. 

Bacteria are one-celled and so small thej^ can only be seen by 
aid of a microscope. The process of reproduction is simple and 
rapid. The bacterium becomes constricted, divides, and finally 
there are two cells instead of one. Under favorable conditions each 
cell divides, and so rapid is the work that it has been estimated that 
one bacterium may give rise, within twenty-four hours, to seventeen 
millions of similar organisms. The favorable conditions for growth 
are moisture, warmth, and proper food. 

97 



Yeasts, Avliicli arc also one-celled organisms, grow less rapidly. 
A bnd developes, breaks off, and forms a new yeast plant. Some 
yeasts and some kinds of bacteria produce spores. Spores, like 
the dried seeds of plants, may retain their vitality for a long time, 
even when exposed to conditions which kill the parent organism. 

Yeasts and nearly all bacteria require oxygen, but there are 
species of the latter that seem to grow equally well without it, so 
that the exclusion of air, which, of course, contains oxygen, is not 
always a protection, if one of the anaerobic bacteria, as the kinds 
are called which do not require oxygen, is sealed in the can. 

Spoiling of food is caused by the development of bacteria or 
yeasts. Certain chemical changes are produced as shown by gases, 
odors, and flavors. 

Bacteria grow luxuriantly in foods containing a good deal of 
-nitrogenous material, if warmth and moisture are present. Among 
foods rich in nitrogenous substances are all kinds of meat, fish, 
eggs, peas, beans, lentils, milk. etc. These foods are difficult to 
preserve on account of the omnipresent bacteria. This is seen in 
warm, muggy weather, when fresh meat, fish, soups, milk, etc., spoil 
quickly. Bacteria do not develop in substances containing a large 
percentage of sugar, but they grow rapidly in a suitable wet suId- 
stance which contains a small percentage of sugar. Yeasts grow 
very readily in dilute solutions containing sugars in addition to 
some nitrogenous and mineral matters. Fruits are usually slightly 
acid and in general do not support bacterial growth, and so it comes 
al)out that canned fruits are more commonly fermented by yeasts 
than by bacteria. 

Some vegetable foods have so much acid and so little nitro- 
genous substance that very few bacteria or yeasts attack them. 
Lemons, cranberries, and rhubarb belong to this class. 

Temperature is an important factor in the growth of bacteria 
and yeasts. There are many kinds of these organisms, and each 
kind grows best at a certain temperature, some at a very low one 
and others at one as high as 125° F., or more. However, most kinds 
of bacteria are destroyed if exposed for ten or fifteen minutes to the 
temperature of ])oiling water (212° F.) ; but, if the bacteria are spore 
lirodueers, (Hioking must be continued for an hour or more to insure 
their complete destruction. Generally speaking, in order to kill the 
spores the temperature must be higher than that of boiling water, 
or the article to be preserved must be cooked for about two hours at 
a temperature of 212° F., or a shorter time at a higher temperature 
under pressure. Yeasts and their spores are, however, more easily 
destroyed by heat than bacteria spores. Hence, fruits containing 
little nitrogenous material are more easily protected from fermenta- 
tion than nitrogenous foods in which in general fermentation is 
caused by bacteria. Of course, it is not possible to know what kinds 
of organisms are in the food one is about to can or bottle ; but we 
do know that most fruits are not favorable to the growth of bacteria, 

98 



and, as a rule, the yeasts Avliicli grow iu fruits and fruit juiec can 
be destroyed by cooking ten or fifteen minutes at a temperature of 
212° F. If no living organisms are left, and the sterilization of all 
appliances has been thorough, there is no reason why the fruit, if 
properly sealed, should not keep, with but slight change of texture 
or flavor, for a year or longer, although canned fruits undergo 
gradual change and deterioration even under the most favorable 
conditions. 

"When fruit is preserved with a large amount of sugar (a pound 
of sugar to a pound of fruit) it does not need to be hermetically 
sealed to protect it from bacteria and yeasts, because the thick, 
sugary sirup formed is not favorable to their growth. However, 
the self-sealing jars are much better than keeping such fruit in large 
receptacles, from w'hich it is taken as needed, because molds grow 
freely on moist, sugary substances exposed to the air. 

MOLDS AND MOLDING. 

Every housekeeper is familiar with molds which, under favor- 
able conditions of warmth and moisture, grow upon almost any kind 
of organic material. This is seen in damp, warm weather, when 
molds form in a short time on all sorts of starchy foods, such as 
boiled potatoes, bread, mush, etc., as well as fresh, canned, and 
preserved fruits. 

Molds develop from spores which are always floating about in 
the air. When a spore falls upon a substance containing moisture 
and suitable food it sends out a fine thread, which branches and 
works its way over and into the attacked substance. In a short 
time spores are produced and the work of reproduction goes on. 

In the first stages molds are white or light gray and hardly 
noticeable; but when spores develop the growth gradually becomes 
colored. In fact, the conditions of advanced growth might be 
likened to those of a flower garden. The threads — mycelium — might 
be likened to the roots of plants and the spores to the flower and 
seeds. 

Mold spores are very light and are blown about by the wind. 
They are a little heavier than air, and drop on shelves, tables, and 
floor, and are easily set in motion again by the movement of a brush, 
duster, etc. If one of these spores drops on a jar of preserves or a 
tumbler of jelly, it will germinate if there be warmth and moisture 
enough in the storeroom. Molds do not ordinarily cause fermenta- 
tion of canned foods, although they are the common cause of the 
decay of raw fruits. They are not as injurious to canned goods as 
are bacteria and yeasts. They do not penetrate deeply into preserves 
or jellies, or into li(juids or semi-liquids, but if given time they will, 
at ordinary room temperature, work all through suitable solid sub- 
stances which contain moisture. Nearly every housekeeper has seen 
this in the molding of a loaf of bread or cake. 

99 



In the work of caiiiiing, preserving, and jelly making it, is 
important that the food shall be protected from the growth of molds 
as well as the growth of yeasts and bacteria. 

To kill mold spores food must be exposed to a temperature of 
from 150° F. to 212° F. After this it should be kept in a cool, dry 
place and covered carefully that no floating spore can find lodgment 
on its surface. 

STERILIZATION. 

To sterilize a substance or thing is to destroy all life and sources 
of life in and about it. In following the brief outline of the structure 
and work of bacteria, yeasts, and molds, it has been seen that damage 
to foods comes through the growth of these organisms on or in the 
food ; also that if such organisms are exposed to a temperature of 
212° F., life will be destroyed, but that spores and a few resisting 
l)acteria are not destroyed at a temperature of 212° F., unless ex- 
posed to it for two or more hours. 

Bacteria and yeasts, which are intimately mixed with food, are 
not as easily destroyed as are those on smooth surfaces, such as the 
utensils and jars employed in the preparation of the food. 

Since air and water, as well as the foods, contain bacteria and 
yeasts, and may contain mold spores, all utensils used in the process 
of preserving foods are liable to be contaminated with these organ- 
isms. For this reason all appliances, as well as the food, must be 
sterilized. 

Stewpans, sjioous, strainers, etc., may be put on the fire in cold 
or boiling water and boiled ten or fifteen minutes. Tumblers, bottles, 
glass jars, and covers should be put in cold Avater and heated grad- 
ually to the boiling point, and then boiled for ten or fifteen minutes. 
The jars must be taken one at a time from the boiling water at the 
moment they are to be filled with the boiling food. The work should 
be done in a well swept and dusted room, and the clothing of the 
workers and the towels used should be clean. The food to be ster- 
lized should be perfectly sound and clean. 



-Exlracl, h\n iiurs lhillcli>i No. 20.-:. 



100 



METHODS OF MAKING JELLY. 

In no department of preserving does the housekeeper feel less 
sure of the result than in jelly making. The rule that works per- 
fectly one time fails another time. Why this is so the average 
housekeeper does not know ; so there is nearly always an element 
of uncertainty as to the result of the work. These two questions 
are being constantly asked: "Why does not my jelly harden?" 
"What causes my jelly to candy?" 

It is an easy matter to say that there is something in the 
condition of the fruit, or that the fruit juice and sugar were cooked 
too short or too long a time. These explanations are often true ; 
but they do not help the inquirer, since at other times just that 
proportion of sugar and time of cooking have given perfect jelly. 
In the following pages an attempt is made to give a clear explana- 
tion of the principles underlying the process of jelly making. It is 
believed that the Avomen who study this carefully will find the key 
to unvarying success in this branch of preserving. 



Pectin, Pectose, Pectase. 

In all fruits, when ripe or nearly so, there is found pectin, a 
carbohydrate somcAvhat similar in its properties to starch. It is 
because of this substance in the fruit juice that we are able to 
make jelly. When equal quantities of sugar and fruit juice are 
combined and the mixture is heated to the boiling point for a short 
time, the pectin in the fruit gelatinizes the mass. 

It is important thiit the jelly maker should understand when 
this gelatinizing agent is at its best. Pectose and pectase always 
exist in the unripe fruit. As the fruit ripens the pectase acts upon 
the pectose, which is insoluble in water, converting it into pectin, 
which is soluble. Pectin is at its best when the fruit is just ripe 
or a little before. If the juice ferments, or the cooking of the jelly 
is continued too long, the pectin undergoes a change and losses its 
power of gelatinizing. It is, therefore, of the greatest importance 
that the fruit should be fresh, just ripe or a little underripe, and 
that the boiling of the sugar and juice should not be continued too 
long. 

Fruits vary as to the quantities of sugar, acid, pectin, and gums 
in their composition. Some of the sour fruits contain more sugar 
than do some of the liiilder-flavored fruits. Currants, for example, 
often contain four or five times as much sugar as the peach. The 
peach does not contain so much free acid and it does contain a great 
deal of pectin bodies, Avhich mask the acid; hence, the comparative 
sweetness of the ripe fruit. 



101 



Selection and Handling of Fruit for Jelly Making. 

An acid fruit is the most suitable for jelly making, though in 
some of the acid fruits, the strawberry, for example, the quantity 
of the jelly-making pectin is so small that it is difficult to make jelly 
with this fruit. If, however, some currant juice be added to the 
strawberry juice, a pleasant jelly will be the result; yet, of course, 
the flavor of the strawberry will be modified. Here is a list of the 
most desirable fruits for jelly making. The very best are given 
first: Currant, crab apple, apple, quince, grape, blackberry, rasp- 
berry, peach. 

Apples make a very mild jelly, and it may be flavored with 
fruits, flowers, or spices. If the apples are acid it is not advisable to 
use any flavor. 

Juicy fruits, such as currants, raspberries, etc., should not be 
gathered after a rain, for they will have absorbed so much water 
as to make it difficult, without excessive boiling, to get the juice to 

jelly. 

If berries are sandy or dusty it will be necessary to wash them, 
but the work should be done very quickly so that the fruit may not 
absorb much water. 

Large fruits, such as apples, peaches, and pears, must be boiled 
in water until soft. The strained liquid will contain the flavoring 
matter and pectin. 

It requires more work and skill to make jellies from the fruits 
to which water must be added than from the juicy fruits. If the 
juicy fruits are gathered at the proper time one may be nearly 
sure that they contain the right proportion of water. If gathered 
after a rain the fruit must be boiled a little longer that the super- 
fluous water may pass off in steam. 

In the case of the large fruits a fair estimate is 3 quarts of 
strained juice from 8 quarts of fruit and about 4 quarts of water. 
If the quantity of juice is greater than this it should be boiled down 
to 3 quarts. 

Apples will always require 4 quarts of water to 8 quarts of 
fruit, but juicy peaches and plums will require only 3 or 31/2 quarts. 

The jelly will be clearer and finer if the fruit is simmered 
gently and not stirred during the cooking. 

It is always best to strain the juice first through cheese cloth 
and without pressure. If the cloth is double the juice will be quite 
clear. When a very clear jelly is desired the strained juice should 
pass through a flannel or felt bag. The juice may be pressed from 
the fruit left in the strainer and used in marmalade or for a second- 
quality jelly. 

To make jelly that will not crystallize (candy) the right pro- 
portion of sugar must be added to the fruit juice. If the fruit 
contains a high percentage of sugar, the quantity of added sugar 
should be a little less than the quantity of fruit juice. That is to 
say, in a season when there has been a great deal of heat and sun- 

102 



shine there will be more sugar in the fruit than in a cold, wet 
season ; consequently, 1 pint of currant juice will require but three- 
quarters of a pint of sugar. But in a cold, wet season the pint of 
sugar for the pint of juice must be measured generously. 

Another cause of the jelly crystallizing is hard boiling. When 
the sirup boils so rapidly that particles of it are thrown on the 
upper part of the sides of the preserving kettle they often form 
crystals. If these crystals are stirred into the sirup they are apt 
to cause the mass to crystallize in time. 

The use of the sirup gauge and care not to boil tlig sirup too 
violently would do away with all uncertainty in jelly making. The 
sirup gauge should register 25°, no matter what kind of fruit is used. 

Jellies should be covered closely and kept in a cool, di-y, dark 
place. 

Currant Jelly. 

The simplest method of making currant jelly is perhaps the 
following: Free the currants from leaves and large stems. Put 
them in the preserving kettle ; crush a few with a wooden vegetable 
masher or spoon ; heat slowly, stirring frequently. 

When the currants are hot, crush them with the vegetable 
masher. Put a hair sieve or strainer over a large bowl; over this 
spread a double square of cheese cloth. Turn the crushed fruit 
and juice into the cheese cloth, and let it drain as long as it drips, 
but do not use pressure. To hasten the process take the corners of 
the straining cloth firmly in the hands and lift from the sieve ; 
move the contents by raising one side of the cloth and then the 
other. After this put the cloth over another bowl. Twist the ends 
together and press out as much juice as possible. This juice may 
be used to make a second quality of jelly. 

The clear juice may be made into jelly at once, or it may be 
strained through a flannel bag. In any case, the method of making 
the jelly is the same. 

Measure the juice, and put it in a clean preserving kettle. For 
every pint of juice add a pint of granulated sugar. 

Stir until the sugar is dissolved, then place over the fire ; watch 
closely, and when it boils up draw it back and skim ;" put over the 
fire again, and boil and skim once more ; boil and skim a third 
time ; then pour into hot glasses taken from the pan of water on 
the stove and set on a board. Place the board near a sunny window 
in a room where there is no dust. It is a great protection and 
advantage to have sheets of glass to lay on top of the tumblers. 

To make very transparent currant jelly, heat, crush, and strain 
the currants as directed in the simplest process. Put the strained 
juice in the flannel'bag and let it drain through. Measure the juice 
and sugar, pint for pint, and finish as directed above. 

To make currant jelly by the cold process follow the first rule 
for jelly as far as dissolving the sugar in the strained juice. Fill 
Avarm, sterilized glass with this. Place the glasses on a board and 

103 



put the board by a sunny window. Cover with sheets of glass and 
keep by the window until the jelly is set. The jelly will be more 
transparent if the juice is strained through the flannel bag. Jelly 
made by the cold process is more delicate than that made by boiling, 
but it does not keep so well. 

******* 
— Extract, Farmers Biillrtin No. 20.\ i '. S. Depart)nc7it of Ai^ricultiirr. 

THE KEEPING OF VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND MEATS. 

The following hints regarding the keeping of different kinds of 
food may be found useful : 

Potatoes are kept without difficulty in a cool, dry, and dark 
place. Sprouts should not be allow^ed to grow in the spring. 

Such roots as carrots, parsnips, and turnips remain plump and 
fresh if placed in earth or sand filled boxes on the cellar floor. 

Sweet potatoes may be kept until January if cleaned, dried, and 
packed in chaff so that they will not touch each other. 

Pumpkins and squash must be thoroughly ripe and mature to 
keep well. They should be dried from time to time with a cloth and 
kept, not on the cellar floor, but on a shelf, and well separated from 
each other. 

Cabbages are to be placed in barrels, with the roots uppermost. 

Celery should be neither trimmed nor washed, but packed, heads 
up, in long, deep boxes, which should then be filled with dry earth. 

Tomatoes may be kept until January, if gathered just before 
frost, wiped dry, and placed on straw-covered racks in the cellar. 
They should be firm and well-grown specimens, not yet beginning 
to turn. As they ripen they may be taken out for table use, and 
any soft or decaying ones must be removed. 

Apples, if for use during the autumn, may be stored in barrels 
without further precaution than to look thera over now and then to 
remove decaying ones; but if they are to be kept till late winter or 
spring they must be of a variety known to keep well and they must 
be hand-picked and without blemish or bruise. They should be 
wiped dry an'd placed with little crowding on shelves in the cellar. 
As a further precaution they may be wrapped separately in soft 
paper. 

Pears may be kept for a limited time in the same way, or packed 
in saw^dust or chaff, which absorbs the moisture which might other- 
wise favor molding. 

Oranges and lemons are kept in the same way. Wrapping in 
soft paper is here essential, as the uncovered skins if bruised offer 
good feeding ground for mold. Oranges may be kept for a long 
time in good condition if stored where it is very cold but where 
freezing is not possible. Lemons and limes are often kept in brine, 
an old-fashioned household method. 

— Extract, U. S. Department of Agricullure, Ear/)/ers But/etin No. 12S. 

104 



Laundry 

Flora Rose. 



Cleaning is a sanitary measure ; without it health may be endan- 
gered and life shortened. 

Dirt in itself may not ahvays be harmful, but its ounce of "pre- 
vention" is one of the most important sanitary measures in the home, 
also is the weekly washing. It is not merely in order to gratifj' 
our sense of cleanliness that we go to the extreme of upsetting the 
family routine one day each week but also to prevent soiled clothing 
to become dangerous to its wearer. 

Washing then, has a three-fold purpose : to remove dirt and 
thus re-open the pores of the cloth, to dry the cloth so as to renew 
its power of absorption, and to destroy any bacteria that may be in 
it. As a household process laundering often proves an arduous task 
instead of an interesting occupation, for, unfortunately, many houses 
are not equipped in a way to remove the l)urdens incident to wash- 
day. 

Why is soiled clothing dangerous to its wearer? 

The skin acts as a heating regulating apparatus through evap- 
oration of perspiration, and thus reduces body heat. It also serves 
in some manner to eliminate the wastes of the body in the form of 
secretions. Perspirations and secretions are absorbed by clothing 
and bits of dead skin are continually being rubbed off to find their 
way into the meshes of the fabric. After a time the limit of absorp- 
tion by clothing is reached, its pores become clogged and the clothing 
begins to have a damp, sticky and oily feeling. 

If it has been starched the garment becomes limp. In this 
condition, if clothing is not actually dirty, it is at least unwholesome 
to wear, for it prevents proper absorption and evaporation of moist- 
ure from the body and thus actually increases its warmth in summer 
and its cold in winter. 

A scientific knowledge of the laundry and its entirety is a 
requisite for the housekeeper. 

FABRICS. 

A first step toward gaining necessary knowledge of laundry 
methods is to learn something of the nature of the fabrics to be 
laundered and how they respond to the cleansing agents or solvents 
generally used in the laundry. The common fibers used for clothing 
are of both vegetable and animal origin. The chief vegetable fibers 

105 



are cotton and linen ; the animal fibers, wool and silk. Among the 
common laundry cleansing agents, called reagents, are two classes 
of chemicals known as acids and bases. Acids were so named 
because of the sour taste common to many of them. Acids and bases 
possess as a characteristic property the power to unite with each 
t)ther to form a third substance called a salt. Therefore they are said 
to neutralize each other; for the biting acid and the eating base 
have through their union become harmless or neutral. For example : 
if hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) and sodium hydroxid (lye), 
both of which if strong can almost instantly eat holes in any fabric 
and even into flesh itself, are united in certain proportions a harmless 
salt, common table salt, is formed. The bases chiefly used in the 
laundry are known as alkalis. The chief household alkalis are lye, 
washing soda, ammonia, and borax. 

Cotton and Linen. 

The soft fibrous material covering the seeds of the cotton plant 
is known as cotton. If a single mature cotton fiber Avere examined 
under the microscope, it would show itself to be a long, flattened, 
twisted tube, thicker at the edges than in the middle. Its hollow, 
twisted condition gives to cotton a characteristic lightness and 
elasticity, making it suitable for the manufacture of fine yarns. Linen 
is a product of the flax plant. A linen fiber under the microscope 
looks like a long, transparent tube with thick, smooth walls and a 
central canal. Fabric made from linen is stronger and more lustrous 
than that made from cotton and is a better conductor of heat. Both 
cotton and linen consist for the most part of a plant substance, 
cellulose, and they respond similarly to chemical substances or to 
cleansing agents. 

Action of acids on cotton and linen. — Strong mineral acids have 
an eating (corrosive) action on cotton and linen; if they are allowed 
to eat for an.y length of time, the fabrics are entirely destroyed. Such 
eating, or corrosion, is greatly increased by heat. Cold dilute mineral 
acids affect the fabrics but little if the acid is thoroughly washed 
out immediately after its use, but the cloth may be seriously injured 
if the acid is allowed to dry on it. The appearance of the cloth may 
not undergo any change, but its durability will be affected. The 
mineral acid having the least effect on vegetable fibers is hydro- 
chloric acid, more commonly known to the housekeeper as muriatic 
acid ; but hydrochloric acid also damages fabric if allowed to dry 
on it. 

The organic acids — such as acetic acid in vinegar, oxalic acid in 
tomatoes, tartaric acid in grapes, and citric acid in lemons — have no 
action on cotton and linen unless they are allowed to dry on the 
fabric and are subsequently moistened and ironed dry with a hot 
iron. Then destructive results are produced. 

The presence of starch in the cloth lessens the destructive action 
of any of the acids on it. 

106 



Action of alkalis on cotton and linen. — The action of alkalis on 
cellulose differs from that of acids. Dilute washing-soda solution, 
borax, and soap have little or no harmful action on cotton or linen, 
but lye is more destructive to these fabrics, especially at high tem- 
peratures and if allowed to act for any length of time in the presence 
of air. If a fabric made from cotton fibers is immersed for two 
minutes in a strong solution of lye it assumes a gelatinous appear- 
ance, and if it is then immediately removed and washed free of the 
lye it is found to have shrunken greatly and to have become much 
closer and firmer in texture than it was before the immersion. The 
action of the strong alkali for the limited time mentioned has actually 
strengthened the cloth. It was thought at one time that the process 
just described would be very valuable in the manufacture of textile 
goods, but it so increased the strength of the fabric treated that 
garments were slow to wear out; hence its use was discontinued 
because it lessened sales for the manufacturer. A modification of 
the process, known as mercerization, gives to cotton goods a glossy, 
silky appearance without materiallj^ increasing its durability. It 
must not be thought, however, that because the limited action of 
strong alkali strengthens a fabric, its long-continued action will be 
harmless. Its first effect is strengthening, but if its action is con- 
tinued beyond the brief time mentioned it will gradually destroy 
cloth. 



WATER. 

A bountiful supply of water good for laundry purposes is an 
important factor in successful laundering. Water is the natural 
solvent for much of the dirt that accumulates on clothing ; moreover, 
it acts as a carrier to rid the clothing of all forms of dirt, both 
soluble and insoluble. A water good for the laundry should be 
clean, soft, clear, odorless, free from discoloration, free from iron, 
free from organic matter. 

Hard and Soft Water. 

The very characteristic (its solvent power) that renders water 
valuable as a cleansing agent (detergent) is the cause of its greatest 
shortcomings ; for on its way to us water may pass over, or through, 
soils that contain soluble substances of an undesirable nature. 
The characteristic known as hardness, possessed by some waters, is 
due to the presence of lime salts gathered in the way described. 
Hard water is not the best for laundry purposes, as lime salts 
decompose the soap used and form in its place an insoluble lime 
soap, which collects as a curd on the surface of the water. Such 
soap decomposition takes place as long as any lime remains in the 
water and the cleansing (detergent) properties of soap are not in 

107 



operation until every bit of lime has combined with soap to form 
lime soap. By leaving minute particles of lime soap in its pores, 
hard water is said to weaken a fabric. If the available supply of 
water is hard, then, the problem of the housekeeper is to find some 
means of removing lime or of reducing its ill effects. 

Temporary and permanent hardness. — According to the nature 
of the lime salts present, water is said to be either temporarily or 
permanently hard. Temporary hardness is caused by the presence 
of carbonate of lime, and such water may be softened by boiling. 
If the boiled water is allowed to stand, the lime settles at the bottom 
of the receptacle and the softened water may be drawn from the 
top of it. Permanent hardness is due to the presence of sulfate of 
lime. Boiling has no softening effect on permanently hard water. 

Another salt often very obnoxious in laundry water is iron. Its 
presence, even in very small amounts, may give a yellow tinge to 
clothing, owing to the deposit of minute particles of iron rust in 
the pores of the fabric. 

Organic matter may be present in the Avater used for laundry 
purposes, which causes clothing washed in it to become dangerous 
to the wearer. It is very desirable in all the cited cases to eliminate 
mischievous substances. 

A number of materials for softening water are on the market. 
The cheapest and best of them are alkalis, known as washing soda, 
lye, borax, and ammonia. In softening water the objection to the 
use of any chemical is the injury it may do to the fabric. 

Materials for Softening- Water. 

Washing soda (sodium carbonate). — AVashing soda is the best 
alkali to soften water for general household use, for, while eft'ective 
in its action, it is not so corrosive as to render its handling difficult 
or its use unduly harmful, nor is it expensive. It should never be 
used in its dry form, however, for it is an alkali sufficiently strong 
to eat holes in a fabric if it is used in full strength, and wherever 
a particle of the dry substance falls a strong solution is formed. 
Carelessness causes many of the complaints against present-day 
laundry methods. 

Lye (sodium hydroxid or caustic soda). — Lye is an alkali of far 
greater strength than washing soda ; one pound of lye being equal 
to about twelve pounds of washing soda, it should be used with jusi 
so much the greater caution. It should never be used save in solu- 
tion and, as the solution deteriorates very rapidly on exposure to 
air, if any quantity is made it should be kept in bottles or jars 
tightly stoppered with rubber stoppers. The compound formed by 
exposing lye to the action of air and water, is washing soda, so there 
is no advantage in using it after all. Lye is much more difficult to 
handle, and its action is so much more corrosive than is that of other 
alkalis that it is not advisable to use it in the home laundry. 

108 



Borax (sodium biborate). — One of the mildest alkalis to use in 
file laundry is borax. This alkali is more expensive than either lye 
or washing soda and is not so vigorous in its action ; but in some 
instances it is greatly to be preferred to either lye or washing soda. 
Washing soda and lye, unless they are thoroughly rinsed from 
clothing, have a tendency to cause yellowing, particularly when 
starch is used afterward. Borax, on the other hand, has a tendency 
to whiten fabrics and is added directly to starch, in order to give it 
good color and to increase its clearness. When colored fabrics or 
wools are to be washed in hard water, borax is one of the best 
alkalis to use for softening the water; therefore it should be on the 
laundry shelf for that purpose if for no other. 

Ammonia (ammonium hydroxid). — Ammonia is another good 
alkali for softening water when it is not advisable to use stronger 
alkalis. Ammonia is a very volatile substance, consequently it 
should be used only when the laundry process is to be conducted 
quickly. It is better and cheaper to purchase the full-strength 
ammonia from a druggist and then dilute it, than to buy the article 
known as household ammonia, which is of unknown strength. 

To soften water. — Both permanently and temporarily hard water 
may be softened by distillation, but that method involves apparatus 
not practicable for the average home. 

If water is temporarily hard, however, it may be softened by 
l)eing boiled, then allowed to stand until the lime settles. The top 
water is afterward drawn off. The method of boiling water to soften 
it is without doubt the best if it softens the water sutftciently, as no 
harmful chemicals are left in the water to injure fabrics. 

Either temporarily or permanently hard water may be softened 
by adding lime or washing soda to the water, then allowing it to 
stand in open kegs for several days before its use. The water should 
then be drawn from the top. If the water is boiled after the addition 
of the softening agent, the time for standing may be considerably 
lessened. Neither of the two processes just described is much in use 
in the household, as the time consumed by them is often considered 
unwarranted. The more common method is to add washing soda, 
lye, borax, or ammonia at the time of washing. The addition of 
one of those substances at that time prevents the action of the lime 
on the soap. A good suds may thus quickly be procured, but it 
does not rid the water of the lime-soap curd which forms and which, 
in part at least, becomes entangled in the pores of the cloth. The 
entangled curd has a weakening action on the fabric and gives it a 
close, filled-in appearance. 

The only satisfactory method of getting rid of iron is to add 
washing soda to the water, then let the water settle for five or six 
days before using it. The top water is afterward drawn off. 

Water may be softened by any of the following methods : 

1. For each gallon of water, use two tablespoons of a solution 

109 



made ]>y dissolving one pound oi' washing soda in one (juart of 
boiling water. The solution should be bottled and kept on hand, as 
it is a useful cleansing agent (detergent). 

2. For each gallon of water use one-fourth tablespoon of lye 
dissolved in one cup of water. 

3. For each gallon of water use one tablespoon of borax dis- 
solved in one cup of water. 

If water is very hard, increase the amount of alkali used. 

Organic Matter. 

Organic material may be precipitated by the use of alum m the 
form of an alum-borax mixture. The sediment should be allowed to 
settle and the water may then be drawn from the top. 

To remove organic matter. — For each gallon of water use one 
tablespoon of a mixture made up of two thirds borax and one third 
alum. If the water is rich in organic matter, use more than one 
tablespoon of the mixture. When water is very scarce, alum is 
sometimes used to separate the dirt from the water and the water is 
then filtered and used again. 



The Adulteration of Soap. 

It is not uncommon to find some foreign, insoluble substances in 
soap, Mdiich have been added merely to increase its weight and bulk. 
In cheap soaps resin is often added as an adulterant. It is rather 
difficult to say when resin may be considered an adulterant, for in 
small quantities it is of value in laundry soaps because it whitens the 
clothing. Resin gives a brown color to soap, therefore a dark brown 
soap may safely be rejected as containing an excess of resin. 

The best advice to give the housekeeper is : Select soap manufac- 
tured by a reliable firm and give it a trial. It is not economy to use 
cheap, poorly made soaps in the laundry. A common mistake is to 
think that the use of one kind of soap will prove satisfactory for all 
purposes; this common belief possibly accounts for much of the 
dissatisfaction that exists regarding the various soaps on the market. 
In the manufacture of soap, when just sufficient alkali is used to 
change completely all the fat present into soap, the soap is known 
as a mild soap. If an excess of alkali is used, either a medium or 
a strong soap is produced, the degree of strength depending on the 
amount of free alkali left in the soap. Every laundry sliould con- 
tain all three grades of soap, mild medium, strong. A mild soap 
should always be used when the presence of even a small amount of 
free lye would be injurious in washing flannels, woolen goods, or 
fabrics either frail or delicate in color. A medium soap should be 
used for the more durable colored goods. A strong soap is best for 
most white goods, both cotton and linen. 

110 



Action of Soap. 

This leads us to consider the way in which soap acts as a 
cleansing agent. Much of the dirt in clothing is due to the adherence 
of particles of dust to the fatty impurities that have accumulated on 
the fabric. While rubbing and w^ater alone will loosen and remove 
much of ordinary dirt, the process of removal is greatly facilitated 
by the use of a soap solution. Soapsuds penetrates the pores of a 
fabric more completely than does water; thus, first, it softens 
dirt ; second, it emulsifies the fats, that is. soapy water acts to 
divide fatty material into very minute particles, which are removed 
from clothing by rubbing and pounding. The particles are then held 
in suspension in the suds. The adherent dirt is caught in the 
emulsion and the whole is carried away in the washing process. 
When free alkali is present it unites Avith the fatty impurities present 
to form more soluble soap; this action removes a ]mrt of the fat 
and aids in removing more in the process of emulsification. These 
facts serve to illustrate the desirability of the use of strong soaps 
Avlien much grease is present. 

Aside from its use in removing dirt, soap has antiseptic proper- 
ties. It is not safe to depend on it as the only disinfectant in cases 
of contagious diseases, but it is a valuable purifier for the ordinary 
liousehold washing. 



Soap Substitutes and Accessories. 

Soap is the best all-round cleansing agent to use in the laundry, 
but there are other substances with similar cleansing properties that 
may be used Avith good results in its place : 

Substances that facilitate the Avashing process. — Various sub- 
stajices are used Avith soap to facilitate or accelerate the washing 
l)rocess. Among them may be mentioned lye, washing soda, borax, 
and ammonia; turpentine, paraffin, kerosene, and benzine; and 
fuller's earth. 

Borax and ammonia are mild alkalis and may be very useful when 
the presence of some free alkali is needed and the effect of a strong 
soap would be injurious. They are often utilized in connection 
Avith a neutral or mild soap for Avashing flannels and delicately col- 
ored fabrics. 

Turpentine, paraffin, kerosene, and benzine all are valuable aids 
to the laundress, for they exert a solvent action on matter of a fatty 
nature and thus soften and loosen dirt, materially facilitating the 
Avashing process. The disadvantage in the use of turpentine, paraffin, 
and kerosene is, that clothing in the washing of which they have been 
used may be insufficiently rinsed afterward and retain the odor of 
them. Benzine is dangerous to handle because of its inflammability, 
and cannot be used Avith very hot Avater because it evaporates. 

Ill 



Fuller's earlli is a valuable adjuuct in cleaning, and is sometimes 
used partly to replace soap in the washing process when the articles 
to be washed are in a very greasy condition and the use of a strong 
soap is not sufficient, and when the use of a strong alkali is not 
advisable. 

Manufacturers have put on the market various soaps and 
powders that have incorporated with them some one or more of the 
above substances. Naphtha and borax soaps and soaps containing 
fuller's earth may be piTrchased and give satisfaction. Good results 
may be obtained at less cost by the use of soap and the accessory 
material uncombined, though it may often be more convenient to use 
the manufactured article that is a combination of the two. 

Washing powders. — Something should be said of washing pow- 
ders. They are mixtures of soap and some alkali such as lye, washing 
soda, and borax, and may have incorporated with them some one or 
more of the substances of the nature of turpentine, paraffin, fuller's 
earth. In the case of the poorer powders a "filler" is used, that is, 
a substance giving weight to the powder and very properly con- 
sidered an adulterant. The best powders contain large amounts of 
soap and only small amounts of alkali. A report is made of one of 
the poorer varieties of washing powder containing only 10 per cent 
of soap. Enough has been said in connection with the effect of 
alkalis and their use to guide the housekeeper in her purchase and 
use of these powders. There may be occasions when a washing 
powder is desirable, but indiscriminate use of these strong cleansing 
agents is inadvisable and should not be generally indulged in. 



Soap solution for ordinary purposes: 

1 bar ordinary washing soap 

2 to 3 quarts water 

Shave soap and put into saucepan with cold water. Heat gradu- 
ally until soap is dissolved (about 1 hour). 

Soap solution for soaking clothes : 

1 bar ordinary soap 

3 gallons water 

% to 1 tablespoon turpentine. . 
1 to 3 tablespoons ammonia. 

Soap solution for washing much-soiled woolens and delicate colors: 

1/2 pound very mild or neutral soap 
1/4 pound borax 
3 quarts water 

Soap jelly with turpentine incorporated: 

1 bar soap 

1 quart water 

1 teaspoon turpentine or kerosene 

112 



A liquid for washing delicate fabrics and colors may be luacbi 
from laundry starch, grated potatoes, rice, flour, etc. The water in 
which rice has boiled may be saved and utilized for the same purpose. 
The cleansing liquid after cooking should be as thick as cream and 
should be diluted from one to four times, according to the amount 
of dirt in the clothing. Rinse clothing in a more dilute solution, 
which may be blued for white clothes. 

STARCH. 

Starch is in the form of minute c'ompact granules, insoluble in 
water, obtained from many plant tissues. We are familiar with the 
powder that a mass of these granules forms. When starch granules 
are subject to the action of heat and moisture, the heat causes the 
moisture to penetrate the granules ; they swell, burst, and form a 
thick, sticky mass known as starch paste. Starch has the power of 
penetrating the pores of a fabric. The kind of starch used deter- 
mines its penetrating power. On drying, it gives to clothing a 
characteristic stiffness. 

There is a twofold reason for the use of starch in laundry 
operations : first, the glazed surface of starched garment keeps clean 
longer than an unglazed (unstarched) surface; second, the increase 
in body of the starched garment gives it increased resistance to 
moisture and the garment is considered correspondingly more attrac- 
tive in appearance. In the commercial laundry and in those indus- 
tries in which the finishing of fabrics is a consideration, use is made, 
not of one kind of starch, but several, according to the nature of 
the work to be done. We are all familiar with the especially 
attractive appearance of the nicely laundered new garment as it 
comes to us fresh from the factory. Starching in the factory and 
in the commercial laundry has been reduced to a science, in which 
intelligent knowledge and skill in the use of materials play an 
important part. 

The three kinds of starch chiefly used in the commercial laundry 
are rice starch, wheat starch, and cornstarch. In Belgium and 
France, as well as in other European countries w^here laundry work 
is of noted excellence, rice starch is used almost exclusively. The 
finer quality of the work done seems to justify the purchase of the 
higher-priced rice starch. 

Little rice starch is used in this country except in the textile 
industries for finishing fine fabrics, such as lawns and organdies. 
It is not used because of its cost, because of the greater convenience 
of using the starches that are locally produced in large quantities, 
the possibility of getting very good and nearly similar results witli 
wheat starch, and the American preference for the greater body 
that wheat starch and corn starch give. 

The American housekeeper uses, as a rule, only cornstarch, 
because of the cheapness of cornstarch and a lack of knowledge of 
the different characteristics of the other starches. It is interesting 

113 



to Jiole how the exclusive hoiisehohl use of cornstarch has withdraAvn 
other varieties of starch from the shelves of the retail grocery, 
until it is practically impossible for the housekeeper to obtain wheat 
starch unless she buys it from the big laundry-supply companies. 

The purpose of the launderer is to blend starch with the fabric 
in such a way as to make the starch a natural part of the cloth; to 
give the desired degree of stiffness and yet keep the fabric pliable ; 
to give a body as enduring as possible and capable of resisting 
moisture ; to give clearness, . good color, and any desired finish, 
W'hether dull or glazed. That purpose can be accomplished only with 
a knowledge of the materials to be used. 

The several varieties of starch vary considerably in their ability 
to ])enetrate fabrics. The reason for the use of rice starch wnth finer 
fabrics by those considered to do a superior grade of laundry work, 
is because of its penetrating quality. It is said to penetrate the 
pores of a fabric more completely than does any other starch and 
to give a finer, smoother finish. Next to rice starch in penetrability 
comes wheat starch. Corn starch is the poorest of the three starches ; 
it has a tendency to lump and show starch spots after ironing. 

Rice starch gives a natural, pure white color to fabrics, while 
cornstarch gives a yellow color, and wheat starch a color betAveen 
the two. Since wheat starch and cornstarch are the practical possi- 
l)ilities in the American household, further comparison wnll be 
between these two. When good color, smoothness of surface, plia- 
liility, and fine finish are desired, wheat starch gives the better 
results ; moreover, it is said to hold up better in damp climates. 
Cornstarch gives the greater stiffness, or body, to a fabric. 

According to the finish desired, advantage is taken of the dif- 
feriMit characteristics of wheat starch and cornstarch. When flexi- 
bility and finish are the main objects, w^heat starch is used alone; 
if stiffness is the chief consideration and finish may be overlooked, 
cornstarch is used alone; w^hen it is desirable to combine stiffness 
with flexibility and good finish, a mixture of cornstarch and wheat 
starch is used. There is no reason why the use of wheat starch 
should not extend to the home laundry, and it is to be hoped that 
the time will come when the retail trade will place wheat starch on 
the grocery shelf. 

Various substances are used with starch to increase its pene- 
1i'al)ility aiid prevent it from sticking to the iron, as well as to give 
l)licil)ility to the cloth, increase its body, and improve its color. Of 
these sul>stances may be mentioned borax, alum, i)araffin, wax, tur- 
l)entine, kerosene, gum arable, glue, and dextrin. 

Borax in Starch. — Borax increases the penetrability of starch 
and aids in preventing it from sticking to the iron. Moreover, 
starch containing borax adds gloss to a garment, increases its white- 
ness, and gives it greater body, together with more lasting stiffness, 
than it would otherwise have. 

114 



Alum. — Alum is used alone, or with borax, in starch to improve 
oolor, to increase penetrability and pliability, and, last but not least, 
to thin the starch mixture. When alum is cooked with a starch 
paste it causes the paste to become thinner ''Cooking thin" Avith 
alum does not affect the strength of the starch mixture and is an ad- 
vantage when a stiff starch is desirable and the thick mixture would 
be inconvenient to handle. By the use of alum, starch may be made 
thin without dilution. Alum has been objected to by some persons 
as being somewhat injurious to fabrics. 

Wax, paraffin, turpentine, lard, butter. — Oily substances are 
used to add a smoothness, gloss, and finish, to prevent the starch 
from sticking to the iron, and to aid in preventing the absorption 
of moisture. 

Gum arable, glue, and dextrin. — Substances resembling glue are 
used with starch to increase its stiffening power. They are some- 
times used alone when the white color of starch is considered a 
disadvantage in stiffening colored fabrics. 

Directions for using starch, starch substitutes, and starch acces- 
sories. — In making starch a naturally soft water is greatly to be 
desired, but if the water furnished is hard it should be softened with 
borax, not with Avashing soda nor lye, since w^ashing soda and lye 
tend to produce a yellow color with starch : 

1. 1/4 cup wheat starch to 1 quart water gives flexible, light, 
durable finish. 

2. % cup cornstarch to 1 quart water gives moderate body 
stiffness. 

3. % cup wheat starch to 1 quart water gives flexible, firm finish. 

4. l^ cup cornstarch to 1 quart water gives stiff body finish. 

A mixture of the two starches may be varied, to produce any 
desired result. 

Directions for cooking starch. — Starch should first be mixed 
with a little cold water and then stirred slowly into boiling water 
and cooked in accordance Avith the following directions: 

1. If wheat starch is used, cook slowly at least 25 or 30 minutes. 

2. If cornstarch is used, cook slowly 15 or 20 minutes. 

3. If a mixture of wheat starch and cornstarch is used, the wheat 
starch should be added first and cooked 15 minutes. The corn- 
starch should then be added and the mixture cooked 15 minutes 
longer. Stir mixture frequently, to prevent sticking and formation 
of a skin. 

Thorough cooking of starch is very desirable in laundry prac- 
tice, for it increases the penetrability of the starch and decreases its 
tendency to stick to the iron. If borax, lard, butter, kerosene, or 
other like substance is used it should be cooked with the starch, to 
insure thorough mixing. 

115 



Thick starch : 



V^ i^'"l> starch, mixed with V^, cup cold water 
1 quart boiling water 
V2. to 1 level tablespoon borax 

1/4 level tablespoonful lard or butter or kerosene or turpentine; 
or 1/4 -inch-square wax or paraffin 

Mix, and cook as directed under directions for cooking starch. 



Thin starch: 

% cup starch, mixed with l^ cup cold water 
3 quarts boiling water 

Other ingredients, same as for thick starch 
Mix, cook as directed under directions for c 



ions for cooking starch. 



Clear starch : 



Dilute % cup thick starch with 1 quart hot water. 

Clear starch is used for thin muslins, infants' dresses, etc. 

Raw starch: 

Same proportions as for thick starch. 
Use borax but omit fatty substances. 
Stir thoroughly before using. 

Raw starch is often used with very thick or very thin goods, to 
increase their stiffness. A fabric will take up a greater amount of 
starch in the raw form than in the cooked form. The desired stiff- 
ness is produced by the cooking given the raw starch by the heat 
of the iron. The difficulty of ironing is increased by using raw 
starch, for unless the ironer is skillful the starch cooks on the iron 
and starch specks are then produced on the clothes. Moreover, raw, 
starch gives a less durable finish than does cooked starch. 

Rice starch: 

% cup rice 

1 quart boiling water 

Wash rice, cook in water until very soft. 

As water evaporates, add more to keep quantity up to 1 quart. 

When cooked add another quart boiling water. 

Strain, without squeezing, through double thickness cheesecloth 
or through flannel. Use while hot. The most satisfactory starch 
for delicate fabrics is rice starch, and it may be used in place of 
clear starch. 

Glue for stiffening dark clothes : 

12 ounces dark glue 

1 quart water 

Boil together until glue is dissolved, cool somewhat. Dip the 
garment to be stiffened into glue and wipe off excess of glue with 
piece of black cheesecloth, sateen, or calico. After sprinkling roll 
garment in black cloth and iron on ironing board covered with black 
cloth. Any glue left over may be saved and used again. 

116 



To increase stiffness : 

1. Partly dry garment before starching. 

2. Add 1 tablespoon powdered gum arable reduced to liquid in ^4 
cup boiling water, to the stiff starch mixture. 

3. Use borax. 

4. Add a small amount of glue to starch mixture. 

5. Dry quickly. 

Gum arabic as a starch substitute: 

4 tablespoons pulverized gum arabic 

1 pint cold water 

3 tablespoons alcohol 

Put water and gum arabic in saucepan and set into saucepan con- 
taining boiling water. 

When dissolved, strain through cheesecloth, cool, add alcohol, 
pour into a bottle, cork, set away for use. The alcohol acts as a 
preservative and the mixture may be kept for any length of time. 

BLUING. 

White fabrics have naturally a creamy tint, which may be 
deepened to an unpleasant pale yellow by careless washing, by in- 
sufficient rinsing, or by lack of exposure to the bleaching influence 
of sunlight and fresh air. Bluing is used to hide the yellow color, 
because blue and yellow are complementary colors and when used 
together in proper proportions give the effect of whiteness. Bluing 
is unwarrantably used to hide a yellowness which comes from care- 
.less washing. 



No one kind of bluing may be recommended to the housekeeper. 
She must experiment for herself, choose one good variety, and learn 
to use that one properly. 

Sufficient bluing should be used to make a little of the bluing 
water taken up in the cup of the hand show a pale sky-blue col'or. 
More than that amount of bluing should not be needed. It is always 
best to make a small amount of strong bluing in a bowl of water, 
then draw from it to color the water in the tub. 

TO REMOVE STAINS. 

The ordinary washing process is sufficient to get rid of most 
of the dirt in clothing, but certain stains may require special treat- 
ment in order to insure their complete removal. Some stains are 
insoluble in water, or in soap and water, or they may be made so 
by the action of heat and thus become permanently set during the 
washing. It is wise always to look over clothing for such stains 
and to remove them before the washing begins. Such examination 
will often save time, and wear and tear on garments, even when it 
is possible to remove the stain in washing, as only the part of the 

117 



garment most affected is then treated and the removal of the stain 
does not involve severe treatment of the whole garment. 

The process of removing stains is fundamentally the same as 
that of removing other forms of dirt, that is, to find some substance 
in which the stain is soluble or which will aid in its mechanical 
removal. The chief solvents valuable in removing stains that resist 
ordinary washing processes are : 

Turpentine (inflammable) Javelle water 
Benzine, naphtha, or gasoline (in- Benzol 

flammable) Hydrogen peroxitl 

Carbona Sunshine 

Kerosene (inflammable) Ammonia 
Ether (inflammable and an anaes- Borax 

thetic) Salt 

Chloroform (anaesthetic and a Vinegar 

poison) Lemon juice 

Alcohol (inflammable) Hydrochloric acid (a strong acid 
Olive oil, lard, etc. very corrosive to fabrics and to 

Fuller's earth and french chalk. flesh) 

Naphtha soaps Ink eradicator 

Water, both hot and cold Milk 
Oxalic acid (a poison) 



Method of Removing Stains. 
Blood: 

1. Wash in cold water until stain turns brown, then rub with 
naphtha soap and soak in warm water. 

2. Rub with common soap, then soak in water to which a tea- 
spoon of turpentine has been added. 

3. If the goods is thick apply a paste of raw starch to the stain. 
Renew paste from time to time until stain disappears. 

Chocolate : 

Sprinkle with borax and soak in cold water. 

Coffee : 

Spread stained surface of the cloth over bowl or tub. Pour boil- 
ing water through the stained part of the cloth. Pour the water 
from a height so as to strike the stain with force. 

Cream : 

Wash in cold water, then with soap and water. 

Fruit and wine stains : 

1. Treat with boiling water as for coffee. 

2. If the stain resists the boiling-water treatment, soak the 
stained part of the cloth for a few minutes in a solution made from 
equal parts of javelle water and boiling water. Rinse thoroughly 
with boiling water to which a little dilute ammonia water has been 
added. Repeat if necessary. 

118 



Grass stains : 

1. Soak in alcohol. 

2. Wash with naphtha soap and warm water. 

3. If the fabric has no delicate colors and the stain is fresh, treat 
with ammonia water. 

4. For colored fabrics, apply molasses or a paste of soap and 
cooking soda. Let stand over night. 

Grease spots: 

1. Wash thoroughly with naphtha soap and water. 

2. Soften old grease spots with turpentine, oil, or lard before 
washing the cloth. 

3. Dissolve the grease in benzine, alcohol, chloroform, ether, 
carbona, or benzol. 

4. For delicate fabrics dissolve grease spots in ether or chloro- 
form. Chloroform and carbona are useful because noninflammable. 

5. Apply a paste of fuller's earth or chalk to absorb grease. 



Mildew : 

Mildew is very difficult to remove if of long standing. 

1. Wet stains with lemon juice and expose to sun. 

2. Wet with paste made of one tablespoon of starch, juice of one 
lemon, soft soap, and salt, and expose to action of sun. 

3. Treat with paste made of powdered chalk and expose to action 
of sun. 

Mucus : 

Soak in ammonia water or in salt and water, then wash with 
soap and cold water. 

Perspiration : 

1 . Wash in soapsuds and expose to the action of sunshine. 

2. Treat with javelle water as directed for iron rust. 

3. Treat with oxalic acid as directed for iron rust. 

Scorch : 

Scorched fabrics can be restored if the threads are uninjured. 

1. Wet the stained portion and expose to the action of the sun. 
Repeat several times. 

2. Extract juice of two onions, add one cup vinegar, two ounces 
fuller's earth, and half an ounce soap. Boil. Spread paste over 
scorched surface. Let it dry in sun. Wash out thoroughly. 



WASHING. 

While Monday has long been chosen as the home day for wash- 
ing, there may be good reason to postpone the process until Tuesday. 
Before washing day, clothing should be thoroughly gone over to 
discover rents and stains, carefully sorted, and the white clothes 
put to soak. This preliminary work requires time which it may be 

119 



inconvenient to give on Saturday and which may not be justified 
on Sunday. 

The following outline is suggested for the preparation of cloliies 
for washing : 

1. Sort the clothes according to kind : 

a. White cotton and linen clothing 
Table linen and clean towels 
Bed and body linen 
Handkerchiefs 

Soiled towels and cloths 

b. Colored clothing 

c. Flannels 

2. Mend rents, except in stockings. 

3. Remove stains. 

4. Put as many white clothes to soak as is practicable. 

Some colored clothes having fast colors may be 
soaked if very much soiled. 

The purpose of soaking soiled clothes before washing them is 
to soften and separate the fibers of cloth in order to loosen dirt. 
Water alone accomplishes this purpose to a great extent ; but the 
use of a soap solution, or a soap solution to which has been added 
borax, ammonia, or other alkali, and turpentine, kerosene, or ben- 
zine, makes the washing process both easier and quicker. 

It is well before beginning the washing to make a soap solution, 
as it gives a quick suds and is more easily handled, and its use will 
therefore save time. 

All the clothing should not be put to soak in the same tub. 
If three tubs are available, soak table linen and clean towels in one, 
bed linen and body linen in a second, soiled towels and cloths in a 
third. If only two tubs are available, Avash table linen and clean 
towels without preliminary soaking. Soiled towels and cloths should 
always be soaked before washing. 

If colds have prevailed in a family, the handkerchiefs should 
be put to soak in a solution of boric acid in a basin by themselves, 
and should be separately washed and boiled for twenty minutes. 

A¥et the garment to be soaked, rub the more soiled part with 
soap solution, and fold that part in. Fold and roll each garment 
separately and pack it into the tub with the other garments. Fold- 
ing and rolling prevents the dirt in the soiled parts from spreading. 
Cover the clothes with warm soapy water, to which may have been 
added an alkali such as borax or ammonia, and an oily substance, 
perhaps turpentine, kerosene, or benzine. Cover the tub, and if 
possible let the clothing soak in it during several hours or over 
night. If colored clothes are to be soaked, cover with warm water 
or with water very slightly soapy. No alkali should be used with 
the colored clothing. 

No arbitrary order can be recommended for washing clothes, 

120 



but flannels, white goods, and colored goods should be washed sep- 
arately as the washing process differs somewhat for each case. 

A few simple explanations may aid the housekeeper in solving 
some of her problems. Heat tends to expand the threads of the 
cloth, and the expansion aids in removing dirt caught between the 
threads. If the cloth is cooled during the washing process, the 
thread contracts and the dirt is again entangled ; consequently, after 
the cloth has once been warmed, one of the objects of the launderer 
should be to maintain an even or a rising temperature. In the 
commercial laundry an even temperature is kept by turning the 
right amount of steam -into the washing machine. In the home 
laundry, boiling water added from time to time will aid in keeping 
an even temperature. A good suds is necessary in the washing 
process. As the suds falls, that is, as it is used up by uniting with 
dirt, more suds should be supplied by adding more soap or soap 
solution. If insufficient soap is used, insoluble black specks are 
often left on the clothing. 

All utensils, receptacles, and apparatus should be immaculately 
clean. 

Outline for Washing White Linen and Cotton Clothes. 

1. Put water on to heat. 

2. Make soap solution. 

'S. Rinse clothes from water in which they have soaked. 

4. Wash clothes in warm suds in following order : 

a. Table linen and clean towels 

b. Bed linen 

c. Body linen 

d. Handkerchiefs 

e. Soiled towels and cloths 

f. Stockings. 

5. Wash again in clean suds. Wring. 

6. Boil in clean, slightly soapy water. 

7. Rinse in clean, clear water. Wring. 

8. Rinse in bluing water. Wring. 

9. Starch. 

10. Hang to dry. 

11. Remove from line, dampen, and fold. 

Directions for washing: 

1. Have plenty of hot water before beginning the washing. If 
possible the water should be soft ; if it not, soften it as directed. 

2. Make a soap solution ; use one cake of soap to tAvo or three 
quarts of w^ater. 

3. Rinse the clothes from water in which they were soaked, 
removing as much of the dirt as possible. Parts of the clothing that 
are very much soiled should be rubbed a little and rinsed in fresh 
water before the garments are put into a tub or a washing machine. 
The precaution of rinsing saves wear and tear on the*wliole garment. 

121 



4. Pour warm water into tub or washing machine ; if the water 
is hard, soften it with washing-soda solution or borax. Add enough 
soap solution or soap to make a good suds. A tablespoon of turpen- 
tine, kerosene, or benzine may be added to the washing water as well 
as to the water in which clothing has soaked. Put in clothes to be 
washed. Kubbing is essential for soiled garments. It may be 
accomplished in one of two ways : by using the washboard and 
old-fashioned tub, or by using a washing machine. It is well to 
have a board for very soiled parts, such as hems and edges, but 
the washing machine is a great improvement on the older method. 

Whenever the water becomes dirty, -use fresh suds. Clothes 
cannot be made clean without the use of plenty of water. Keep u] 
a good suds while washing, and add hot water from time to time. 
If a washing machine is used, do not put enough water in the 
machine to float the clothes ; if you should, they would escape the 
mechanical action of the dasher and would not be sufficiently rubbed. 
Clothes should be wrung from the wash water through the wringer. 
The screws of the wringer should be adjusted to bring its rolls close 
together and clothing should be folded so as to give it an even 
thickness in passing through the wringer, for heavier garments 
loosen the screws of the wringer. Fold in buttons and hooks and 
turn the wringer slowly. 

5. A second suds is generally necessary, though it may l)e 
omitted if the clothing has been only slightly soiled. Shake out 
clothes wrung from the first suds, look them over for soiled parts, 
turn them wrong side out, and drop them into second suds. AVash 
and Avring them ready for boiling. 

6. Clothes should be clean before they are boiled, as the boil- 
ing process is intended not so much to remove visible dirt as to 
destroy germs and purify the clothing as well as to whiten it. 
Boiling is omitted when a naphtha soap is used, as the soap loses 
its effect in very hot water; it is asserted that boiling is not needed 
because naphtha itself is a purifier. Nevertheless, at least once a 
month, the clothing washed at other times with naphtha soap should 
be boiled. 

Fill the boiler half full of cold water ; if the water is hard, 
soften it. Add enough soap solution to make a light suds. Half 
fill the boiler with clothes, wrung and shaken out from the last suds. 
Use plenty of water and do not put too many clothes into the boiler. 
Bring the water very gradually to the boiling point and boil ten 
minutes. 

Kerosene or turpentine is sometimes added to the boiler water 
to counteract the yellow color given clothing by the use of the dark 
resin soaps. It is better to avoid kerosene and turpentine at this 
point if possible, as clothing treated by them requires very thorough 
rinsing to remove the odor. Each boilerful of clothes should be 
started with clean cold water. Cloths or clothes containing lamp- 
black or machine oil may be placed in the hot water left in the 

122 



boiler after the last clothes have been wrung from it. Kerosene 
or turpentine should then be added, as they are the solvents for 
such dirt. 

7. Rinsing is an important part of the washing process, for 
if soap or some of the strong alkalis are left in the cloth, they may 
be very detrimental in the bluing or starching process. 

If water is hard it should be softened for rinsing with either 
borax or ammonia and not with washing powder. The rinsing water 
should be hot. The clothes should be slowly lifted with a clean 
stick from the boiler into a dishpan, and drained or wrung and 
shaken before being put into the rinse water. It is not always 
practicable to use more than one rinse water before bluing the 
clothes, but better results are obtained when the clothes are rinsed 
more than once. AVith some kinds of bluing, the presence of soap 
or an alkali precipitates the blue as iron rust. If the starch used 
is not pure, and any lye or washing soda or soap has been left 
in the cloth, a yellow color is produced from the starch impurities 
by the action of those alkalis. Wring from the rinsing water and 
shake out the garments. 

8. Bluing. — It is impossible to give any rule for the amount of 
bluing to use or the depth of color to be decided upon. Some fabrics, 
such as soft, loosely-woven fabrics, absorb more bluing than others. 
The amount of bluing to be used is a matter for experimentation by 
the launderer. Clothes should not be allowed to stand in the bluing 
water, as they might become streaked. 

If a ball bluing is used, tie it in a thick cloth, Avet, and squeeze 
it into a bowlful of hot water. Use a part of the resulting solution 
for bluing the water. More of the bluing in the bowl should be 
added to the bluing in the tub from time to time as the clothing 
takes it up. As some kinds of bluing are in the form of minute 
particles, the bluing water should be stirred each time before adding 
clothes to it. After they are wrung, unstarched clothes will then 
be ready for drying. 

9. Starching. — Make the starch according to directions pre- 
viously given. Starch those garments requiring thick starch first, 
as moisture from the clothing gradually thins the starch and a 
medium stiff, medium thin, and thin starch gradually result. 

Stiff starch. — Collars, cuffs, shirt bosoms. 

Medium stiff starch. — Shirt waists, collars and cuffs, coarse lace 
curtains. 

Medium thin starch. — White petticoats, duck skirts, and some 
dresses. 

Thin starch. — Skirts and dresses when a stiff finish is not de- 
sired; shirt waists. 

Clear starch. — Infants' dresses, fine laces, curtains, light-weight 
table linen when it is desirable to give it some body. 

Raw starch. — Collars, cuffs, shirt bosoms when an extra stiffness 
is desired; some light curtains. 

123 



The starch should be thoroughly worked into the cloth so as to 
distribute it evenly through the threads of the fabric. Such working 
insures a smooth, even stiffness and prevents starch spots in ironing. 
All garments starched with boiled starch should be dried thoroughly 
before being dampened. They should be dampened several hours 
before being ironed. If articles are to be raw-starched they should 
be thoroughly dried first. They are then dipped into the raw starch 
and rubbed as for washing, squeezed dry, and spread out on a clean 
sheet or cloth, but not one over the other. They should cover 
only half the sheet. The other half of the sheet should be folded 
over them. Then the sheet with its contents should be rolled tightly 
and allowed to stand for tAvo or three hours to insure even distri- 
bution of moisture. 

10. Drying. — When possible the process of drying should ac- 
complish more than the mere removal of moisture. Clothing should 
be hung where it will be freely exposed to the action of fresh air 
and sunshine. Such exposure purifies and bleaches at the same time. 
In many commercial laundries a chemical bleach is used to whiten 
clothing that is necessarily dried in steam closets, and consequently 
does not have the beneficial bleaching action of sunshine. The 
home launderer does not often have to consider the need for com- 
mercial bleaching agents. 

The launderer' should be provided with a clothespin bag or, 
better still, with a clothspin apron having a deep wide pocket. 

When possible, lines should be taken down each week, but when 
they cannot be they should be well wiped with a damp cloth before 
hanging up clothes. The clothspins should be clean. Each article 
should be turned wrong side out and hung with the threads of the 
material straight ; the garment should be shaped as nearly as pos- 
sible in its natural shape. Avoid hanging pieces by corners, for 
thus hung they would be pulled out of shape. Fasten garments by 
they bands when possible. Table linen, bed linen, and towels should 
be well stretched and hung very straight ; the larger pieces should 
be pinned in at least four places, as it is nearly impossible to iron 
properly a piece that was improperly hung. Careful hanging greatly 
reduces the labor of ironing. When the clothes are brought in 
from the line the clothespins should be put into the apron or basket 
kept for that purpose and placed where they will be kept clean. 

Starched pieces should not be allowed to freeze and should be 
removed from the line as soon as dry. Long hanging reduces their 
stiffness. If flannel underwear is properly stretched and hung it 
may be folded and put away without further treatment. 

11. Dampening. — Clothes should be dampened some hours be- 
fore being ironed, because during the interval between moistening 
and ironing the moisture becomes distributed evenly and does away 
Avith the necessity of using a superfluous amount of water. The 
dampening is best done at night, but only as many articles should 
be sprinkled as can be ironed next day, for damp fabric will mildew 

124 



ir Icl'l Met for n few clays, especially in liot weather. Altliough 
clothes should be well daiiipeiietl, they should not be drenched. Very 
often, trouble in ironing starched pieces is owing to overwetting. 
The starched part is soaked and made limp and sticky. A clean 
whisk broom kept for the purpose is the best thing to use for sprink- 
ling clothes. Some persons have used a toy sprinkling pot. There 
is, however, a danger in its use, for it may rust and give rise to 
rust spots on clothing. Large pieces should be sprinkled and folded 
separately. Small pieces may be sprinkled and laid together before 
folding. Care should be taken to fold and roll garments smoothly, 
as this aids in their ironing. The rolls of dampened pieces should be 
packed closely in a basket lined with a clean cloth and covered with 
a clean cloth. 

Table linen and other linen should be made very damp, not 
wet. If table linen is sprinkled with a mixture of one part alcohol 
and four parts water, the result after ironing will be a slight stiff- 
ness resembling that of new linen. 

If an ironing machine is used, unstarched pieces may be removed 
from the line while still damp and ironed immediately without the 
preliminary sprinkling. 

Washing Colored Clothing'. 

The processes of dyeing have so improved that almost all wash 
goods are now considered to have fast colors. This is particularly 
true of the better grades of fabrics, in which the dye seems to attach 
itself with especial firmness to the fibers of the cloth. Tht)ugh a 
a color may be said to be fast, it is only relatively fast. Colored 
goods require more careful treatment than do white goods. The 
conditions that most affect the stability of colors in fabrics are : 
long-continued action of water and soap; strong alkalis or acids; 
strong sunlight, which is a powerful bleaching agent and is used 
frequently for bleaching. 

In washing colored clothing, the factors just enumerated should 
be kept in mind. Colored clothing should not be soaked for any 
length of time unless its color is known to be very stable. Any 
soap used in the washing process should be a mild soap in solution, 
01- if the color of the goods to be washed is very delicate the soap 
solution should be replaced by soap bark, bran, rice water, potato 
Avater, or cooked-starch water. The washing process should be 
conducted quickly, and in water not very hot. After washing, col- 
ored garments should be turned inside out and hung in a very shady 
or dark place, and should be taken in as soon as dry. Fading is 
more often owing to careless drying than to any fault in washing. 
AVashing powders and strong alkalis should never be used with 
colored clothing. If the water needs softening, use borax. If starch, 
bran, rice water, etc., are substituted for soap, use the mixture as if 
it were soapsuds. 

125 



Ill starching colored clothes, ml) the starch in thoroughly and 
wipe ofiP any excess of it ; no difficulty will then be experienced with 
white starch spots. 

To set color. — Sometimes a fabric shows a decided tendency to 
fade even under the best washing conditions. It is always well if 
there is any doubt about fading to test a small piece of the cloth 
before washing it. If the color fades, then an attempt should be 
made to set it. With most colors, the dyer uses chemical substances 
which cause a firmer union between the color and the cloth. Such 
substances are called mordants. The process of making a color fast 
may sometimes satisfactorily be used by the housekeeper to 
strengthen weak colors. The household mordants are brine, vinegar, 
sugar of lead, .and alum, used in the following proportions: 

To 1 gallon water add 

V2 cup mild vinegar, or 

2 cups salt, or 

1 tablespoon alum, or 

1 tablespoon sugar of lead (poison) 

Vinegar is best for pinks. Small pieces of cloth should be tested 
in each of the above solutions and a choice made after the test. 
The cloth of which the color is to be made fast should be left in the 
mordant solution over night and may be left in for several days 
with good results. It should be thoroughly dried before being 
washed. Even with relatively strong colors, soaking a fabric over 
night in a brine solution before washing it for the first time may 
render it far less susceptible to fading influences than it otherwise 
would be. The effect of brine, however, is said not to be lasting. 
Colored goods are often rinsed in a dilute salt solution just before 
drying them. 



BLEACHING. 

In former times, dependence was placed on sunshine, fresh air, 
'and a green sward for bleaching all manufactured cottons and linens. 
Such dependence on natural agents has been obviated by the ability 
to i)rocure similar results from the use of chemicals. 

In the home laundry, we still use natural agents to whiten and 
l)urify household linen. That is the greatest advantage which the 
home laundry has over the commercial laundry; in the latter, in a 
majority of eases, clothes are dried in steam closets, and some 
chemical must replace the sun 's rays to bleach a garment left yellow 
by washing. The action of the sun and air is not merely to bleach 
but to disinfect, and clothes thus dried have a freshness and sweet- 
ness that cannot be duplicated by any other method. 

Occasionally, even in the household, it may be necessary to 
supplement the natural bleaching process by the use of chemicals. 

126 



If a gai'iiK'iit has yellowed by ag(^ or l)y being packed away with 
starch in it, it may be expedient to use a chemical bleach. 

The best bleach to use is javelle water, wiiich should be made 
as follows : 

1 pound washing soda 
V2 pound chlorid of lime 

1 quart boiling water 

2 quarts cold water 

Put soda "in granite pan; add boiling water and stir until dis- 
solved; let cool. 

Dissolve chlorid of lime in cold water; let settle and pour the 
clear liquid into the soda; let settle. Pour off clear liquid, bottle, 
and put away in dark place. 

Use, mixed with equal parts or more of water, and do not let the 
garments stay in over Vz hour. Rinse thoroughly in several waters 
and lastly in dilute ammonia water. 

Moisture is necessary if clothes are to he bleached by the action 
of the sun. After a garment dries, it should be made wet again and 
hung out. It may l)e necessary to repeat the wetting operation a 
number of times before the yellow tinge yields. It is said that 
clothes are whitened if they are allowed to freeze out of doors on 
the line. The reason given for the bleaching action is that freezing 
causes the clothes to retain moisture, hence the time of their bleach- 
ing is prolonged. 

IRONING. 

While a knowledge of conditions aids greatly in ironing as in 
other operations, experience and skill are necessary to accomplish 
good results. Ease of ironing and the quality of the product depend 
on the skill of the operator, on the care that has been used in 
starching, drying, sprinkling, and folding the clothes to be ironed, 
and on the kind and condition of the irons. If the garments have 
])een poorly and carelessly starched, the Avork of ironing is greatly 
increased. Starchy lumps cook on the iron and damage its smooth- 
ness, even when the lumps are immediately removed. The reason 
for allowing clothes to stand over night after sprinkling is to give 
them an even dampness that makes ironing easy and successful. 
If starched goods have been over-dampened, the starch is 1)rought to 
the surface and a result is produced similar to that of careless 
starching. If linen is too dry it cannot be made smooth and free 
from wrinkles. If it is too wet, the process of ironing is laborious. 

It is said that irons that are to be used for starched garments 
should not be polished by rubbing them on salt or emery paper. 
A better method is to procure a good yellow pine board, free from 
all sand and dirt, and rub it with a hot iron until a hard coat of 
burned resin is produced. The board may be used for polishing 
the iron. The iron should occasionally be wiped with a piece of 
wax or paraffin and then with a clean cloth. 

127 



Have reatly and at hand: a iht, linn, iinwarped ironing hoard 
or table, tightly covered with a blanket and clean sheet, securely 
fastened underneath; clean irons; an iron stand, which may well 
consist of a clean brick ; two pieces of old cloth for cleaning irons ; 
a piece of paper folded several times for testing irons ; a piece of 
beeswax or paraffin tied in a cloth, for keeping irons smooth ; a 
bowl of water and a clean cloth for moistening parts dried by ex- 
posure to air. Spread a large paper or place a basket under the 
ironing board to receive the clothes while they ^e being ironed. 

For ordinary ironing a good firm surface is desirable. A thin 
woolen blanket and an outside linen cover are sufficient. For 
embroideries or wool, a thick covering is better, as the fabric should 
sink into a soft foundation to bring out the pattern in one case and 
to give a soft finish in the other. 

The following simple rules for ironing may be followed : 

Iron first that part of the garment which Mall be least mussed 
by further handling or in which a little wrinkling will not seriously 
interfere with good results. 

If the garment is trimmed, iron laces and embroideries first, as 
they dry out quickly because of their porous nature. 

Leave as much of a garment folded as possible, to keep it moist. 
Sometimes it may be convenient to lay a piece of dampened cheese- 
cloth over any unironed part to keep it moist. 

Method and Order for Ironing. 
Nig-ht dresses : 

1. Emlu'oidery ; 2, sleeves; 3, yoke; 4, body. 

Drawers : 

1, Trimming ; 2, tucks ; 3, body ; 4, band. 

Skirt: 

1, Ruffle; 2, hem; 3, body. 

Shirt waists : 

1, Cuffs; 2, collar band; 3, sleeves; 4, yoke; 5, back; (i, front. 

Silk waist: 

Iron as above on wrong side while still danij). 

Embroideries : 

Iron on wrong side on soft foundation, to allow design to stand 
out. 

Laces : 

Lay on piece of flannel covered with a piece of cheesecloth. 
Iron on wrong side and pull out points with tip of iron. Lace should 
be stretched and pinned out on a hard surface. Pull out at each 
point and catch down with a pin ; or stretch and roll on a bottle. 

128 



Tablecloths : 

Use heavy irons, iron on both sides, iron partly dry on wrong 
side and complete process on right side, to bring out pattern. Fold 
selvages together first. Fold all edges evenly, except when folding 
the lengtliAvise folds in half. Draw tipper half back about one-half 
inch in making the last fold, or that part will be pushed out of place, 
giving an uneven edge. The same rule applies to sheets, napkins, 
handkerchiefs, etc. Tablecloths may be folded lengthwise twice and 
then rolled to avoid creases. 

Napkins, handkerchiefs, and towels : 

Iron and fold as for tablecloths. 

Sheets : 

The hems of sheets must be smoothly ironed. It is a good [)1hii 
to iron only that part of the sheet when time is a consideration. 

Flannels : 

Iron after laying a dampened cheesecloth over them. If they 
are not covered with a damp cloth, iron on wrong side; have the 
iron only moderately hot. 

Pillow cases : 

Iron smooth. 

Colored garments ; 

Iron on wrong side, as to do so prevents fading. Do not have 
irons too hot. 

Silk garments : 

Iron on wrong side ; to do so prevents shininess. 

After ironing, each article should be hung on a frame or clothes- 
horse to dry and air before it is put away. If hung in a poorly 
ventilated room the clothes will have a bad odor. 



Irons. — A number of irons are now on the market for summer 
use when it is not desirable to have sufficient fire in the range to 
heat the irons. Some of these are : electric irons, gas irons, and, 
most practical of all for the coimtry home, denatured-alcohol irons. 

For general laundry purposes one size of the ordinary sadiron 
is sufficient, but it is advisable to put several irons into a well- 
equipped laundry, to use for the various kinds of work to be done. 
Among them should be heavy, medium, and small-pointed irons, the 
last for ironing ruffles, lacps, etc. 

A frequent cause of poor ironing is the condition of the irons 
They must be kept clean and free from rust to do good Avork. 
New irons should be heated thoroughly and rubbed with wax or 

129 



grease before using. Tf irons are to he put away for any length 
of time they sliould he covered with a thin coating of vaseline, 
clean grease, or parafifin, or wrapped in waxed paper. If stai'ch 
cooks on, it should be removed immediately Avith a dull knife. If 
irons become dirty from careless use, or from being left on the 
stove during the preparation of the meals, they should be thoroughly 
washed with soap and water and carefully dried. To keep irons 
smooth while using them, rub with Avax or paraffin and wipe imme- 
diately with a clean cloth. They improve with Avear, if they have 
good treatment. 

Tubs. — Although a washing machine may be used, there should 
be one or more tubs in a laundry. Stationary tubs are best, even 
tliough running water is not available, for some simple method of 
draining them can be devised. The tubs are better made of por- 
celain, enameled iron, or alberine stone. Wooden tubs may be 
more cheaply constructed ; but there is danger of the wooden tub 
becoming unsanitary from careless handling. 

A stationary tub should always be set with regard to the height 
of the person who is to use it most. Many tubs are set far too low 
and necessitate too much back bending on the part of the operator. 

If stationary tubs are not available, fiber tubs are the best to 
l)uy for the laundry, as they are light and easy to care for. Gal- 
vanized iron and wooden tubs are cheaper. 

Laundry bench.— The laundry bench for holding tubs should be 
of the proper height. Most such benches are far too low, involving 
effort out of proportion to the task to be accomplished. 

Wringer. — A wringer should be a part of the laundry equip- 
ment, and the best on the market is always the cheapest. After 
using a Avringer, it should be carefully dried and the screws pressing 
the rollers should be loosened. When not in use it should be kept 
covered Avith a cloth to protect it from dust and dirt. The bearings 
should be oiled occasionally. Oil dissolves rubber, and that property 
of oil is taken advantage of in cleaning the rubber rollers. They 
are carefully wiped with a little kerosene which eats away a thin 
film of the rubber, exposing a fresh surface. The operation should 
not be performed frequently, however, and the oil should be care- 
fully and completel}^ removed immediately after its use. 

Ironing board. — An ironing board, Avhich has its broader end 
attached l),y hinges to the wall, is a great convenience, for then it 
is always in place and can be put out of the way by folding up 
against the wall. 

Ironing blanket. — The ironing blanket and sheet should be put 
on smoothly and tacked securely under the board, using short 
brass-headed tacks. It is a good plan to have a separate blanket 
and sheet also, which fit the table used in the laundry, as a table is 

130 



a convenient place for ironing large pieces. The ironing sheet 
Khould he kept clean. 

Sleeve board. — A sleeve board is good not only for sleeves, but 
for gathers and for small dresses. It is not difficult to manufacture 
at home. 

Character of utensils. — As far as possible, all utensils that are 
to come in contact with clothing or to contain material to be used 
on clothing, should be nonrustable. Tinware is not good for laundry 
use because of the ease with which it rusts. The boiler should 
have a copper bottom at least, and is best made entirely of copper. 
Tt then conducts heat better and does not rust. 

Further supplies; 

Rubbing board 
Wooden spoon 
Dipper 

Dishpan, enamel 
Tea kettle 
Measuring cup 
Quart measure 
Iron holder 
Teaspoon 
Clothes basket 
Strainer for starch 
Beeswax or paraffin wrapped in 
cloths to keep irons smooth. 



Laundry bags 
Clothes stick 
Pail, enamel or fiber, for emptying 

water and carrying clothes 
2 saucepans, enamel, one for starch 

and one for soap solution 
Iron stand 
Tablespoon 
Case knife 
Clotheshorse 
Scrubbing brushes 
Clothespin aprons, best made of 

ticking 
Clothespins 



—Extract, Vol. J, No. 11, Farm Home Series No. 3, New York A^riculturat 
College, Cornell University. 



131 



Cost of Food 

Flora Rose. 



KNOWLEDGE NECESSARY TO INSURE PROPER PLANNING 

OF THE DIETARY. 

The al)ilily to i)iirchase foods wisely and well, to plan meal? 
that shall be at once gratifying, satisfying, and fundamentally righ\ 
does not come by instinct nor is it to be acquired in a moment. 
Like any good piece of work, it requires time and study, thought 
and effort, to make it successful. The following outline of body 
needs and food functions is intended to indicate only in the briefest 
way some of the food problems that the housekeeper faces, and to 
show one method of judging the value of the food that is so impor- 
tant a part of family welfare. Without a little of this knowledge 
the housekeeper is really groping blindly. 

The Human Machine. 

The human body is a living machine whose i)urpose it is 1o 
transform one kind of energy into another kind. The main part 
of the food that goes into the body machine each day should be of a 
sort that will yield energy. One of our needs is to find food which 
will supply that energy at the least cost and in a form which will 
give the best service. It is the same old problem that we have had 
before us in dealing with the cost of running the cookstove, furnace, 
or steam engine ; but now the problem has its human application. 

Best fuels for the body. — The substances which are cheapest and 
which give best service to the body as fuels — that is, as energy 
yielders — are the sugars, starches, and fats. Therefore, foods such 
as cei-euls or cereal i)roducts, legumes, potatoes, butter, fat meats, 
oils, iijust occupy a prominent i)lace in the family dietary. 

Body-building substances. — The human nuu-hine, like other ma- 
cliincs, re(piires various materials for repairing it and building it 
up. The nuiii) building material of the living tissue of the body is 
the substance known as protein. Lean meat, white of egg, casein 
of milk, gluten of wheat, are all typical protein substances. (3ther 
materia4s are also required for body building and body welfare, and 
must not be neglected when the cost of food and its uses in the 
body are being considered. Bones, muscles, and nerves all need 
lime and phosphorus, red blood must be supplied with iron. Sodium, 
chlorin, uuignesium, potassium, and a number of other substances 
of less defined use, are all necessary not only to the Avelfare of the 
body but to its ability to continue its existence. Their cost must 
also be reckoned in the purchase of food. 

132 



How Foods May Be Compared as to Real Cost. 

If, then, the cost of food is to be judged, the specific food needs 
of the body must first be determined, then the various foods must be 
compared as to their ability to satisfy each of those needs. 

The trained housekeeper will soon begin to ask herself which 
foods are cheapest as a source of energy, and wdiich as a source of 
protein, iron, lime, or some one of the other substances needed by 
the body. The cost per pound will finally take its right place in her 
mind as something with which to reckon, but not as something by 
which to be overwhelmed. She Avill find that a food which is a 
decidedly expensive source of energy may on analysis prove an 
indispensable source of iron or of lime; that a food which is an 
expensive source of protein may be exceedingly cheap as a source 
of energy; or that a food which seems expensive as a source of both 
protein and energy is still a cheap food because of its supply of 
iron or lime or phosphorus. And so she will test each food aii<l 
make her final choice on an intelligent basis. 

The unit of measure for determining- the energy requirement of 
the body. — Just as there nuist be some unit of measure for weight, 
for distance, for temperature, for cubical contents, for money, so 
there must be some unit of measure for energy or heat. The pound, 
the yard, the square inch, the degree, the dollar, are so familiar to 
us that we never question what they mean or how they were ob- 
tained. We have always been accustomed to seeing solids weighed 
and distances measured. We have learned to translate values in 
terms of dollars and cents. Our experience even gives us some 
fairly accurate idea of what is meant when we say that the thermom- 
eter stands at 32° or 100° F. The unit of measure for energy, or 
heat, which is called a "calorie," has not been in the past a part 
of our education ; but it is to be important in the future if we are 
to provide best conditions for human welfare. 

In any large factory where many engines are in use and fur- 
naces must be kept going night and day, the energy value of fuel 
consumed is of great importance. Just as the grocer must know 
how many pounds or bushels or tons are being delivered to him, so 
the manufacturer nuist know how much energy — that is. how many 
heat units, or calories — the fuel that he is buying is capable of 
giving him. He, like the grocer, cannot afford to pay for short 
measure. 

Daily food requirement. — The human body, like the machine, is 
a spender of energy. We must learn Avhat amount of energy — 
which we measure by calories, or heat units — the body spends every 
day under different conditions of age and activity; and we must 
determine the amount of energy that the various common foods are 
capable of giving to the body, and then compare the various foods 
in terms of the calories that they are capable of yielding. We must 
find out how much building material, in the form of ,i)rotoiri, the 

133 



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134 



body needs each day and how much and at what cost our various 
foods can supply protein. We must find out how much lime, iron, 
phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium are needed, and how the 
common foods compare as sources of those substances. Finallj', we 
must stop and consider all the data accumulated and learn whether 
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food, even at a lower cost than by another, are of as good a type and 
as available to the body as those supplied by that other. Then, 
and only then, have we a real basis for comparing the cost of foods. 
Then only do we begin to develop a philosophy of the right and 
economical nutrition of those for whom we must care. 

Table for estimating' food requirements. — ^The following table, 
like any table of the kind, is only a guide, or indication, as to the 
food requirements of the body as these are understood today. While 
it cannot be followed inflexibly, it should at least serve a useful 
purpose in giving an idea of the amounts of some of the typical 
food substances needed, and will form a basis for comparing the 
values of various foods in supplying those needs. (See page 130.) 

Table for comparing the cost of various foods. — In comparing 
the cost of energy as supplied by various foods, two points of view 
have been adopted : first, the cost of sufficient food to furnish 3,000 
calories, the amount of energy required daily by the average man 
at moderate muscular work ; second, the amount of energy that 
various foods can furnish for ten cents. The price assumed for 
some of the foods is necessarily arbitrary, since prices will vary 
from day to day and from place to place. In comparing the cost of 
the various nutrients supplied by foods, the ten-cent basis has been 
used. The following table (page 132) should prove of great value 
to the housekeeper desiring to feed her family in a progressive way. 
While it has not been possible to include a wide variety of foods, an 
effort has been made to choose those that are typical. The house- 
keeper can thus group, under the types given, foods that are not 
included. 

One soon learns from such study of foods that the really cheap 
sources of energy are cereals. Here also, however, a study of our 
table will show us marked differences among various types. It is 
very interesting to compare the energy cost of two cereal foods such 
as oatmeal or corn meal, with a ready-to-eat cereal food such as 
shredded wheat, and find that shredded wheat is really expensive 
as a source of energy — as expensive, in fact, as whole milk at six 
cents a quart — and is more expensive than whole milk at six cents 
a quart as a source of protein. From the energy and protein stand- 
point, corn meal is an exceedingly cheap food ; but as we look 
further we find that it is an expensive source of lime, iron, and 
potassium. Whole milk, even at ten cents a quart, is a cheap source 
of lime, while skimmed milk or buttermilk is very cheap as a source 
of lime and phosphorus. From a study of the table, eggs seem to 
be a comparatively expensive form of most nutrients, except iron. 

135 



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136 



Here, however, is where even further knowledge of foods is neces- 
sary ; for, while eggs are expensive, the protein, iron, and phosphorus 
contained in them are of a kind that is considered to be unusually 
available to the body, whereas the iron and phosphorus in such a 
food as meat are not believed to be so completely used by the body. 
Comparative cost of edible material in foods. — Many persons do 
not realize the importance of considering the proportion of edible 
material when purchasing foods. This is particularly true in the 
case of meat. Rump, round, beef loaf, a piece of neck or chuck, 
is just as nutritious as porterhouse or tenderloin and may be made 
;is palatable. Not onlj^ may the cheaper cuts of meat be as nutritious 
and as palatable as the more expensive ones, but they may often 
be found to be less wasteful as well. A cheap piece of meat may not 
prove cheap in the end, however, if we pay for bone instead of for 
edible material. 

The Journal of Home Economics for October, 1910, reports an 
experiment made to show the relative cost of several much-used 
cuts of meat. The following table is adapted from that report : 



Kind of meat 



Beef loaf 

Round (braised) • 
Short ribs (boiled) 

Rib roast 

Porterhouse roast- 



Cost per pound 
as purchased 

(cents) 



15 
15 
10 
15 

25 



Percentage of 
edible meat 



72 
61 
36 
41 
41 



Cost per pound 

of cooked meat 

obtained after 

deducting waste 

and loss 

(cents) 



20 
24 

27 
37 
62 



Another interesting experiment is reported, which shows the 
relatively high price that is paid for such a food as chicken. This 
is because of the large amount of waste. 





Weight 


Edible meat 
cooked 

(pounds) 


Cost of 


Cost per pound live weight 


Live 
(pounds) 


Dressed 
(pounds) 


per pound 
(cents) 


16 cents 


4.65 


4.09 


I. 11 


74 





The housekeeper should conduct her own experiment station 
and make experiments such as the above. She may thus soon find 
herself able to rightly estimate values. 



—Extract, I'ol. If, No. 29, Food Srr/rs Xo. 7, New York State Cotte^e of 
Agriculture. 

137 



How to Apply Dietary Standards 



Suppose that a family of four persons desiring to be governed by 
the Langworthy Dietary Standard, should select from the tables for their 
daily menu, the following: 

Oatmeal, milk, lamb-chops, roast beef, sugar, eggs, Irish potatoes, 
sweet potatoes, rice, bread, cake, bananas, tea and coffee. Suppose the 
four adults are men and each engaged in moderate muscular work. From 
the foods selected on the menu result would show the following protein 
content and fuel value: 



Menu of Family of Four Adults for One Day. 

(Langworthy's Standard: Man at Moderate Muscular Work. 



Breakfast. 

Food Materials — 
Oatmeal: 

Oatmeal 

Milk 

Sugar 

Lamb Chops (from leg) 

Bread 

Butter 

*Coffee 



— Weight 
Lbs. 







Fuel 


— 


Protein, 


Value 


zs. 


Lbs. 


Cals. 


8 


0.081 


904 


6 


.012 


117 


3 




340 


8 


.240 


1,629 


8 . 


.046 


592 


2 


.001 


431 




.010 


381 



Total 



.390 



4,394 



Dinner. 



Roast Beef (chuck) 

Potatoes 

Sweet Potatoes 

Bread 

Butter 

Rice Pudding: 

Rice 

Eggs 

Milk 

Sugar 

Tea 



Total 



Bread . . 
Butter . . 
Bananas 
Cake . . . 



Supper. 



Total 

Total for three meals. . . . 
Average for one person . . . 



1 


12 


.277 


1,384 


1 




.013 


3 03 




12 


.011 


335 




6 


.035 


444 




2 


.001 


431 




4 


.020 


398 




4 


.033 


153 




6 


.012 


117 




3 




340 






.010 


381 






.417 


4,286 




12 


.069 


887 




3 


.002 


647 




12 


.006 


218 




8 


.032 


813 






.109 


2,565 






.916 


11,245 






2 2 9 


2,811 



138 



APPLICATION OF DIETARY STANDARD. 

In the table it is seen that .28 pound protein with carbyhydrates and 
fats sufficient to yield a fuel value 3,400 calories for a day's menu for 
moderate muscular work, and as the quantity supplied in the foregoing 
table is not sufficient to produce the caloric value content, it becomes 
necessary to add to the following" list of foods already supplied. 

Foods are as follows: 

Full 

Protein Caloric 

Wt. Ozs. Pound Value. 

Cheese 4 0.065 469 

Beans 10 .141 976 

Pork 4 .005 879 



.211 2,324 

Total amount added to menu: 

Protein, Lb Caloric Value. 
Quantity content already supplied equals 916 11,245 

Which is insufficient food content for a man of heavy muscular work, 
therefore. 

Protein Lb. Caloric Value. 

.916 11,245 

Plus food supplied 211 2,324 

V 

1.127 13,569 

equivalent quantity for four persons. 

For one person one-fourth of food content as given in illustration 
above: 

Day's Ration for One Man — 

.282 lb. Protein 
3,392 Calories 

Above is the food nutriments which furnish the desired amount re- 
quired for the Standard of Dietic Food Table, or is near enough to make 
a sufficiency without being absolutely exact. 

— Extract, National Food Magazine. 



139 



Economical Balanced Ration 



Menus. 

Menus must consist of varieties of food suitable for tlie month in 
which they are compiled or written. 

This is the way the housekeeper can show how food can be com- 
bined in a scientific, palatable manner and bring out the full value of 
foods, both in a commercial, as well as the caloric value, and demonstrate 
l)eyond all cavil that the science of cooking is profitable as well lis 
l)leasant. 



REV. MYERS' CHURCH. 

Beef Bouillon. $ .01 

Roast Lamb (gravy, y2C). .OiVz 

Browned Potatoes 01% 

Mashed Rutabagas 01 

Baked Apples 01 

Bread 02 

Oleomargarine 01 

Coffee 011/2 

Total cost to Church.. . .$0,131/^ 
Sold to guests at 15 



HOTEL LA SALLE. 

Bouillon an Barley $0.2r. 

Roast Lamb, entree and 

Brown Potatoes 1.2 5 

Rutabagas 4 

Biscuits 35 

Baked Apples 50 

Coffee 2 5 

Total $3.00 



-Kxlracl, XalUvHtl Food Mnoazine. 



First Prize Menu 

ECONOMICAL BALANCED MEALS 
For One Week in June for Four Adults, Three in Ofliee Work, One Housekeeper 



MATERIALS FOR ONE WEEK COST !)!]0.00 (NEW YORK PRICES). 



Raspberries 1 % quarts 
Strawberries, 3 quarts. 
Pineapple, 1 fresh. 
Kananas, 8. 
Lemons, 0. 
Lemons, 9. 
Dates Vs lb. 
Rhubarb, 1 lb. 
Cherries,, % lb. 
Cherries (Stewing) 1 lb. 
Tomatoes. li^> lbs. 
Lettuce, 3 beads. 
Asparagus, 4 bunches. 
Spinach, \y.> lbs. 
Corn, 1 can. 
Carrots, 1% lbs. 
Onions. 1 lb. 
(ireen Beans. % lb. 
Radishes, 1 bunch. 
Mint, 1 small bunch. 



I'arsley, 1 bunch. 
Celery, 1 head. 
Peas.-lV:! lbs. 
I'otatoes, 10 lbs. 
Rice, 1/2 lb. 

Sweet Red Pepper, 1. 
Tapioca, ^ cup. 
Macaroni. 14 ' • 
Kggs. 2 doz. 
v'liicken. 4 lbs. 
Lamb. .") lbs. 
Halibut. 2 lbs. 
Bacon, ly, lbs. 
Salt Pork, % lb. 
Salmon, 1 small can. 
Steak, 11/2 lbs. 
Cheese, % lb. 
Crackers, Vj lb. 
Bread, 6 loaves. 
Elour, .Ti/. lbs. 



(iraham Flour, 1 cup. 
Cereal, IVi cups. 
Corn Flakes, 2 cups. 
Coffee. 1 lb. 
Tea, 4 oz. 
Chocolate, 2 oz. 
Butter, 2 lbs. 
P.utterine, 1 lb. 
Crisco, 1/4 can. 
Cream, 4 pts. 
Milk. 7 qts. 

(Jelatine, 1 tablespoon. 
Sugar, (> lbs. 
Flavoring, 4 teaspoons. 
Baking Powder, 1 oz. 
Salt. (> oz. 
Rock salt, 2 lbs. 
Pepper, 1 oz. 
Oil. V-i pt. 
\'iuegar, 14 pt. 



140 



Tlic iiuiikt;i1s attached to tlu' menu lor Suuday refer to the juoiiertics of the 
food used as indicated in the loMowing : 

1. — Food rich in jjioti'id. 4. — Food for hulk. 

2. — Food rich in fats. 5. — Food largely sweet. 

.".. — Food mostly li<]uid. 0. — Food mostly starch. 



Materials Used 



DlJEAKFASr 



Sunday 



.SLJ'l'FlJ 



Kasphcr 
Twi 



ries,-'' Sugar" and Creaiu- 
Salnion Fritters' 
n Mountain .Muffins' 

Coffee 

DINXEl! 

t'elery r.ouillon ^ 

Uoast ('hicken' (iil>let (Jravy- 

Mashed I'otatoes" Young <"arrots< 

.Xsparagus'' on Toast" with Melted lUitter- 

Strawberries^ and Cream* or Strawherry 

Ice Cream 2 



Creamed Kggs.* Lettuce,* Sandwiches' 

Chocolate Layei- Cake" 

Lemonade' 



Monday 



I'.lack Coffee' 



L!KEAK1\^>ST 

Baked Uanauas 

I'ooked Cereal with Sugar and Cieam 

Toast Coffee 

LUXCIIEOX 

Asparagus in Crusts 

* l>utch Cheese and Chopped Nuts 

Raspberry Tapioca I'uddiug 

DINNER 

Cream of Corn Soup 

Told Roast Chicken Lettuce (Jarnish 

Rice with I'imento String Heans * 

Snow Fudding, lieinon Sauce 



Tuesday 



BREAKFAST 

('herrics on the Stem 

Corn Flakes, Sugar and Cream 

Broiled Bacon One Egg Muflius 

Coffee 

LTNCIIEON 

Chicken Broth Flecked with I'arsle 

Rice and I'iiuento, Balied with CIkm 

Snow Pudding 

Strawberry Sauce 

DLXNER 

Round Steak with Brown (Jravy, 

Tomato Catsup 

I'otato I'uff I'.oiled Onions 

Lettuce and Radish Salad, French l>re: 

Chocolate Layer ("ake 

I'ineapple 



Wednesday 



BREAKFAST 

Strawberries, Sugar and Cream 

Cereal Omelet 

Toasted Muffins 

Coffee 

LUNCHEON 

Spinach on Toast, Steak fJi'avv 

Whole AVheat Bread with Butter 

Acidulated Bananas 

Tea 

DINNER 

Roast Leg of Lamb 

Mint Sauce Brown Oravy 

Franconia Potatoes New Peas 

Fresh Pineapple 

Coffee 



Thursday 

P.RE.VKIWSr 

Baked Rhubarb 

('oru Oysters Fi-ied with Bacon 

(iraham Muffins 

Coffee 

LUNCHEON 

Stuffed Eggplant 

Sti-awberrv Short Cake 

Iced Tea 

DINXElt 

('ream of (ireen I'ea S<»uii 

)ld Itoast' Lamb Watercress Oarnish 

Potatoes Delmonico, Stuffed Tomatoes 

I'ineapple or Coffee .lellv 

Vanilla Wafers 

Friday 

BUEAKF.\ST 

Wheatena witli Dates 

Sugar and ('ream 

Buttered Toast Strawbeny-Rliuliarb 

Marmalade 

Coffee 

LUNCHEON 

Cream of Waterci'i'ss Soup 

Baked Macaroni and Cheese 

Fresh Raspberries 

Wafers 

DINNER 

Jlollenden Halibut, lOgg Sauce 

Potato lialls C.ni((ts 

Lettuce and Cucuiiibei- Salad 

Toasted Crackers and ('lieesc 

Coffee 

Saturday 

BKE.\KF.\Sr 

Stewed Cherries 

Creamed Potatoes with Cuiled Bacon 

Toast Coffee 

LUNCHEON 

Fish a la Creme 

Tomato Salad 

Emergency Biscuit or Raised Kolls 

Iced or Russian Tea 

DINNER 

Lamb en Casserole with Dumplings and 

Vegetables 

Asparagus on Toast 

Lemon Meringue Tartlets 

Coffee 



141 



SALMON FRITTERS (Original) — 1 small can salmon, or efjual fiiiantity fresh 
• ooked, 2-3 cup milk, 1 beaten egg, 1 teaspoon salt, 2-3 cup cracker crumbs, 14 tea- 
spoon pepper. Melt o heaping tablespoons Crisco in frying pan, put in salmon mix- 
ture in large spoonfuls, shaping into cakes, and fry quickly. Mixture should be as soft 
as can be handled. 

CARROTS, (Probably a common way) — Cook 1% pints carrots cut in i/^ inch 
cubes in boiling salted water until tender (about 20 minutes) ; drain, add '4 teaspoon 
pepper and 2 tablespoons butter and let it cook through carrots for 3 minutes. 



LEFT OVERS. 

Asparagus — Creamed in crusts. 

Muffins — Hollowed out, fried in deep fat or buttered and browned in hot oven 
for crusts. 

Raspberries — Tapioca pudding. 

Mashed Potato — Potato I'lifF. 

Cereal — Cereal Omelet. 

Muffins — Split and toasted. 

Franconia Potatoes — Potatoes Delmuiiico. 

Halibut — Fish a la Creme. 

Lamb — Cold and en casserole ; bones in water cress soup. 

Chicken — Cold and in soup. 

Steak — Rice casserole. 

Waste from Potato Balls — Creamed potatoes. » 

Corn — Corn oysters. 

Pea pods and a few green peas — Cream of pea soup. 

— Extraei, National Food Magazine— Jennie Cunningham. 



142 



Economy in Club Entertaining 



Luncheon for Sixteen for $3.00 
I. 

t'hickcn Urotli in Cup, with Wliipix'd ('icaiii 

WafiTs 

Ham Loaf, Maslicd Totatocs 

Hot Biscuits and ICscallopod Corn 

Baited Apples 

(I'ickles, Jolly) 

I'unipkiu Tie witli Whipp<'d ('ream 

(•(ifl"i>(> 

COST : 

Chicki'U biotli •? in 

Hani, etc !l"' 

One dozen ears coin, at 12c 20 

One pumpkin, 10c ; pics, total 25 

Cream, 1 quart 28 

Potatoes, etc 15 

Coffee, 1 pound 35 

Biscuit and butter 30 

Apples, etc 25 

Wafers 10 

,$2.98 

II. 

Chicken Broth, Whipped Cream 

Chicken Croquettes 

Potatoes in Cases Lima Beans 

Escalloped Tomatoes 

Marmalade 

Peach Ice Cream Angel Food Cake 

Coffee, Demi Tasse 

COST : 

Chicken .$ .75 

UoUs and butter .".5 

I'otatoes 10 

Beans 20 

Tomatoes 15 

Cake 25 

Ice cream 80 

Cream 14 

(.'offoe 25 



.$2.00 
— ExIracI, lYdlio/uil Food Ma^itzhie. 

143 



Invalid Cookery 



The sick room should be screened. 

Only persons actually required for the care of the patient should be 
allowed in the room. 

All linen which has been in contact with the patient or soiled by him 
should be either soaked in carbolic acid, 5 per cent, or boiled. 

The eating utensils of the patient should be marked, and used by 
no one else. 

Bath water should be sterilized by the addition of 5 per cent carbolic 
acid, or by boiling". 

Baths are of great importance in keeping the body healthy. 

The skin is full of small glands (pores) through which you breathe 
as much as with your lungs, and when these are clogged you cannot be 
healthy. 

By intelligent bathing the impurities are removed, and the circulation, 
which is essential to healthy nutrition, is improved. 

INVALID COOKERY. 

In preparing food for an invalid the following points should be kept 
in mind: 

The food should be served in the most pleasing manner possible. 

It should be suited to the digestive powers of the patient, and should 
be served in small quantities, just enough to satisfy hunger or to furnish 
needed strength. 

In a severe illness the doctor prescribes the kind and amount of food 
to be given. In long and protracted illness it is necessary to take nour- 
ishing food in small quantities at frequent intervals. In short spells of 
illness it is sometimes best to go without food for a day or more, so as 
to give the system complete rest. 

The following foods are easily digested and are given to invalids: 
Milk, eggs (raw or slightly cooked), beef tea, gelatinous jellies, gruels, 
well-cooked cereals, raw oysters, juice of oranges, grapes or other fruit. 

SERVING FOOD. 

Use the daintiest dishes in the house. Place a clean napkin on the 
tray, and, if possible, a fresh flower. 

Serve everything in small quantities, as it is more tempting to a deli- 
cate appetite. 

Try to surprise the patients by some unexpected food and in this way 
induce them to take nourishment. 

Serve hot food hot, and cold food cold. 

Remove the tray as soon as the food is eaten, as food should never 
be allowed to stand in a sick room. 

BEEF TEA. 

Shred l^ lb. lean, juicy beef, and place in a double-boiler, vvilh 1 c 
cold water and Vz t. salt. Let it stand 1 hr.; then put over boiling water 
and heat. Strain and press the meat to obtain all the juices. Serve hot, 
salt to taste. 

EGG NOG. 

Beat the yolk of 1 egg. add 1 T sugar and beat until light. Add Vg 
c. of milk. Beat the white of the egg well and fold it in lightly. Add Vz 
t. vanilla. Egg nogs are recommended for patients. 
EGG NOG WITH FItUIT JUICE. 

Make same as egg nog, using 1 % T. lemon juice in place of milk. 
FARINA GRUEL. 
3 T. farina, 1 c. boiling water, 

1 t. salt, 1 c. milk. 

Place upper boiler directly over the fire until the water boils. Add 
farina slowly. Boil up once, then place over boiling water 15 m. Add 
milk, cook 15 m. longer. Sweeten if desired. 

144 



Home Nursing 



Sensible ]{.tilc»< for (he Nurse. 

"Remember to be extremely neat in dress; u few drops of hartsliorn 
in the water used for daily bathing will remove the disagreeable odors of 
warmth and perspiration. 

"Never speak of the symptoms of your patient in his presence, un- 
less questioned by the doctor, whose orders you are always to obey im- 
plicitly. 

"Remember never to be a gossip or tattler, and always to hold sacred 
fhe knowledge which, to a certain extent, you must obtain of the private 
affairs of your patient and the honseiiold in which you nurse. 

"Never contradict your patient, nor argue witli him, nor U-l him see 
you are annoyed about anything. 

"Never whisper in the sick room. If your patient be well enough, 
and wishes you to talk to him, speak in a low, distinct voice, on cheerful 
subjects. Don't relate painful hospital experiences, nor give details of 
the maladies of former patients, and remember never to startle him with 
accounts of dreadful crimes or accidents that you have read in the news- 
papers. 

"Write down the orders that the physician gives you as to time for 
giving the medicines, food, etc. 

"Keep the room bright (unless the doctor orders it darkened). 

"Let the air of the room be as pure as possible, and keep everything 
in order, but without being fussy and bustling. 

"The only way to remove dust in a sick room is to wipe everything 
with a damp cloth. 

"Remember to carry out all vessels covered. Empty and wash them 
immediately, and keep some disinfectant in them. 

"Remember that to leave the patient's untasted food by his side, 
from meal to meal, in hopes that he will eat it in the interval, is simply 
to prevent him from taking any food at all. 

"Medicines, beef tea or stimulants, should never be kept where the 
patient can see them or smell them. 

"Light colored clothing should be worn by those who have the care 
of the sick, in preference to dark colored apparel; particularly if the dis- 
ease is of a contagious nature. Experiments have shown that black and 
other dark colors will absorb more readily the subtle effluvia that eman- 
ates from sick persons than white or light colors." 

— Exlracl, Family Cojupanioii, 

145 



What You Should Eat 

AND 

What You Should Not Eat 



DIARRHOEA. 

You Should Eat: 

Soups — Light broths, rice, gruel. l)eef tea. 

Meats — Scraped fresh l)eef. lieef .juice, sweetbreads well lioiled. 
Eggs — Soft-boiled or poached, ou toast. 

Fariuaceous — Rice, sago, macaroni, tapioca, dry toast with butter. 
Desserts — Puddings made of sago, rice, tapioca (no sugar). 
Drinks — Tea, toast water, lioiled milk. Linu'water or Vichy may 
be added if nausea is present. 

You Should Not Eat : 

Fresh l)read, vegetables, fried food, i)()rk, \ri\\. lanil), oatmeal, 
pastry, ices, sweets, custards, licjuors, raw fruits, nuts, cheese, browu 
bread. 

LIVER TROUBLES. 
You Can Eat: 

Soups — Light bi-oths or vegetable soups with crackers. 

Fish — Boiled fresh cod, bass, perch, trout, pickerel, raw oysters, 
shrod, halibut, finnan haddie. 

Meats — Chicken, veal, chops, game, honeycomb tripe, tender lean 
mutton, lamb (all sparingly). 

Farinaceous^ — Oatmeal, sago, hominy, arroAvroot, crackers, whole 
Avheat bread, dry toast. 

Vegetables — Baked, mashed i)otato with a moderate amount of but- 
ter, salads of lettuce, water cress, dandelions. 
Almost all fresh vegetables if well cooked can be eaten. 

Desserts — Grapefruit, apples (baked or stewed), grapes, berries in 
season (without sugar), crackers, cheese (camembert or cot- 
tage), tapioca, sago or arrowroot puddings. 

Drinks — Weak tea or coffee (without cream or sugar;, hot or cold 
water wdth lemon juice. 

Do Not Eat: 

Rich sonps. hot bread or biscuits, red meats, eggs, sugar, butter, 
fats, curries, herrings, eels, salmon, nuickerel, sAveets, creams, 
nuts, pies, pastry, cakes, dried fruits, liquors and wines. 

146 



ECZEMA. 

You Can Eat: 

Soups — Lamb or oyster broth. 

Pish — All kinds except mackerel. 

Meats — Beef, mutton, chicken. 

p]ggs — Cooked in every way, but not every day. 

Vegetables— Nearly all, if well cooked. 

Farinaceous — Dry toast, toasted crackers Avitli plenty of butter, 

cereals (avcII cooked Avithout sugar), except oatmeal. 
Desserts — Ripe or stewed fruits. 
Drinks — Cream t)r milk, cocoa made with milk, water. 



Do Not Eat : 

Fried, greasy foods, rich gravies, i)astry, candy, tea, coffee, 
chocolate, and avoid all liijuors. 



CONSTIPATION. 

You Can Eat : 

Soups — Thick soups of meal and vegetaljlcs, oyster stew. 

Fish — Broiled fresh tish. raAV oysters. 

Eggs — Soft-boiled. 

Meats — Roasts of all kinds and poultry. 

Farinaceous — Cream of wheat, oatmeal, bran gems, brown and rye 
breads at least once a day. 

Vegetables — Boiled onions, turnip, baked potatoes (with an extra 
amount of butter), asparagus, cauliflower, spinach, celery, 
salads with French dressing containing an excess of oil. 

Desserts — Stewed prunes, figs, baked apples (with cream), grape- 
fruit, raisins, nuts, plain puddings, oranges, melons, grapes and 
pears. 

Drinks — Plenty of cold or hot water, black coffee, cocoa, new cider, 
buttermilk, orange and grape juice. 



Do Not Eat: 

Salt or smoked fish or meats, liver, pork, beans, new bread, rice 
01" sago puddings, milk, pastry, sweets, tea, cheese, alcohol in any 
form. 

Sip one glass of cold water an hour before breakfast. 

Do not drink while eating, and never more than one glass of 
liquid at one time, and that immediately after the meal. 

147 



FEVERS. 

You Can Eat: 

I*'(mm1s -BeeC lea, cliirkeii ()]• ImuiI) 1)1'o(1i, milk, clear soups. 
I)i-inks — Plenty of pure cold water, lemon or orange juice in cold 
water, lime or toast water, all sipped. 

You Should Avoid: 

Ail solid foods or fruits until your physician allows their use. 
Give fever patients ])lenty of good fresh air. They need all 
the oxygen they can possibly get. 



DIABETES. 

You Can Eat: 

Soups — Mutton, beef, turtle, chicken broth (all with vegetables, but 
not thickened Avith any farinaceous substance), oyster stew 
and beef tea. 

Fish — Boiled. Any kind in season, including shellfish (avoiding all 
dressing with flour). 

Eggs — Three times a week, soft-boiled, poached or dropped. 

Meats — Chicken, turkey, goose, duck, venison, breakfast bacon, 
sweetbreads, fat beef, mutton, lamb, ham, tripe, pig's feet, 
tongue, sausages. (All cooked without flour). 

Vegetables — Irish potatoes, lettuce (plain or dressed), celery, cauli- 
flower, spinach, asparagus, cabbage, onions, olives, pickles, toma- 
toes, dandelions, radishes, string beans. 

Desserts — Custards, jellies, creams (without sugar). 

Drinks — Water, tea or coifee (without sugar). 

Never sweeten your food in the ordinary way, as all the usual 

sweets are very injurious in this complaint. For sweetening you 

nuiy use saccharine, to be taken under advice of your physician. 

Do Not Eat : 

Oatmeal, barley, macaroni, rice, arrowroot, sago, tapioca, rye 
bread, whole-wheat bread or biscuits, fruit, melons, ices, jams, 
pastry, honey, candy, sugar or starches of any kind, carrots, par- 
snips, peas, beets, beans, sweet potatoes, turnips, chestnuts, ciders, 
liquors or wines. 

Diabetes is characterized by an excess of sugar in the blood. 
This must be disposed of by converting it into fat. 

This is the usual diet given in Diabetes, but any change recom- 
mended by physicians should be followed. 

148 



OBESITY. 

You Can Eat : 

Soups — Clam bouillon or consomme. 

Fish — Haddock, schrod, halibut, finnan haddie, perch, pickerel, 

smelts. 
Meats — Beef, veal, lamb or mutton (boiled), white meat of chicken 

or turkey, beefsteak, game, meat or fish hash. 
Eggs — Soft-boiled or poached, on toast. 
FariuaceiMis — ^Stale bread, dry toast. 
Vegetables — AVhite potatoes, best greens, onions, tomatoes, radishes, 

olives, squash, lettuce, celery, asparagus, watercress, spinach, 

dandelions. 
Desserts — Berries of all kinds in season, and ripe fruits (omitting all 

sugar), crackers and cheese. 
Di-inks — One cup of coffee or tea (without milk, cream or sugar), or 

a glass of water, sipped. 

Do Not Eat : 

Salt fish, pork, salmon, sausage, all fat food, macaroni, oatmeal, 
]-ice, spices, beets, carrots, turnips, parsnips, puddings, pastry, cakes, 
sugars, sweets, milk, cream and liquors. 

Do not drink while eating. 

Take no bread except when eggs are taken for breakfast, then 
a slice or two of thin toast may be eaten. 

Rise at 7 A. M. and take a cold bath. 

Sleep only eight hours at night and none during the <lay. 

DYSPEPSIA. 

You Can Eat : 

Soups — Thin soups of mutton or beef, oyster stew. 

Fish — Caviar, raw oysters, cod, haddock and halibut (boiled). 

Meats — Lamb, broiled chicken, honeycomb tripe, turkey, mutton, 

sweetbreads, breakfast bacon. 
Parinaceous — Tapioca, sago, rice, wlu)le-wheat, graham, ry<', oatmeal 

bread, dry toast wnth butter, rice cakes. 
Vegetables — Irish or sweet potatoes (baked, l)oiU'd oi- mashed) j 

squash, onions, watercress, celery, asparagus, parsnips, beets, 

carrots, tomatoes (raw or cooked), spinach, Brussels sprouts, 

cauliflower, green peas, lettuce. 
Desserts — Custards, baked apples, figs, stewed prunes, rice or tapioca 

pudding, blanc mange with cream, honey, orange marmalade. 
Drinks — One cup weak tea, coffee or cocoa, a glass of hot water, 

sipped after each meal. 

Do Not Eat: 

Rich soups, hash, pork, veal, stews, gravies, fried foods, liver, 
corned or cured meats, smoked or salted fish, sausages, duck, goose, 
crabs, lobster, salmon, pies, cheese, nuts, ice cream, liquors. 

149 



DEBILITY. 

(Weakness, Lack of Strength.) 

You Should Eat : 

Soups — Chicken, beef, rich vegetable soups, thick broths, beef tea. 
Fish — All fresh fish, boiled or broiled, especially mackerel, salmon, 

swordfish, also raw oysters and clams. 
Meats — Chicken, turkey, duck, game, beef, mutton, lamb chops and 

cutlets, broiled bacon, broiled honeycomb tripe, calves' liver and 

bacon, tender juicy steak. 
Eggs — Scrambled, poached, soft-boiled, raw with sherry. 
Farinaceous — Shredded wheat, rolled oats, rice, hominy, barley, 

macaroni, sago, tapioca, rolls, biscuits, whole-wheat bread, 

brown bread. 
Vegetables — Nearly all fresh and well-cooked vegetables, and fruit 

salads. 
Desserts — Custard, rice, egg and milk, apple, tapioca, baked Indian, 

sago puddings, baked apples, honey, marmalade, sweet fruits, 

nuts, raisins, ice cream, crackers and cheese. 
Drinks — Milk, cocoa, chocolate, water. 



You Should Not Eat: 

Pork, veal, thin soups, hash, stews, cooked oysters, salt meats 
(except ham and bacon), cabbage, cucumbers, turnips, carrots, 
spices, pickles, vinegar, pies, pastry, bananas, pineapples. 

Do not eat fish at any meal when eggs or meat are taken. 

Eat bread and butter with every meal. 

Dinner should be eaten in the middle of the day. 

— Extract, Lyiiia Pinkhatn s I'lunphlft. 



150 



Household Bacteriology 

By Martha Van Rensselaer of Cornell l^niversitv. 



Tn the vegetable kingdom there are micro-organisms that are the 
smallest and simplest plants known. They live in soil and in water 
and are found on the surface of foodstiiflPs. Some varieties prey on 
man and beast and plant. They number hundreds of species, some 
of which are of great value in nature's economy and of great benefit 
to nmn, while others are sources of danger to the health of man 
and animal. 

Dust is a conveyance of such micro-organisms. In itself dust is 
practically harmless, although it irritates the mucous membrane, 
scratches furniture, worries the housekeeper and occupies space 
needed for something else. We cannot get rid of this old enemy; 
there will be dust as long as there are people and furnishings. Wind 
is an agent for distributing it. Housekeepers have probably ahv;iys 
asked the t|uestion, " Where does all the dust come from?" 



KINDS OF PLANT MICRO-ORGANISMS. 

Dust plants are micro-organisms. There are large numbers of 
minute organisms so small that they cannot be seen by the naked 
eye but require the aid of a powerful microscope to show their pres- 
ence ; hence their name, "micro-organisms." Various names have 
been given to these minute living bodies, such as "germs" and 
"microbes." Literally, germ means the beginning, the first living 
cell that produces a more complex form. 

The plant micro-organisms that we shall consider are bacteria, 
molds, and yeasts. 

Bacteria. 

Bacteria are carried on particles of dust, in liquids, and on the 
surface of fruits and vegetables as well as other articles of food 
exposed in the market. They may possibly find their way into the 
house by means of drains, and they are carried by insects. Normally, 
they are found in the air, in the soil, in water, in food, in the mouth 
and the digestive tract, on the skin, under the nails, in the hair, in 
the clothing. 

Bacteria are reproduced by a process of division known as 
"fission." The rapadity of reproduction depends on warmth, moist- 
ure, and food supply. Some species produce a new generation every 
half-hour; thus a single bacterium, if its growth were totally un- 
checked, might become in twelve hours an ancestor of sixteen mil- 
lion descendants. Li two days the descenants would fill a pint 

151 



measure. This rapidity of reproduction does not occur, because 
there are countless checks to the life of every species of bacteria. 

We may form some idea of the minuteness of bacteria when we 
consider that the length of a single bacterium of some species is 
1/25,000 of an inch. Many thousands of them may be packed into 
the space that a grain of sugar would occupy. If one falls into a 
minute wrinkle of the hand, it is as though it had fallen into a deep 
ditch. 

Molds. 

Molds also are micro-organisms. A colony of mold organisms 
growing on some substance forms a velvety pile having a dark cen- 
ter. We often see long threads budding and branching to form a 
network over food. Each head produces thousands of dust-like 
spores. Some molds grow with less moisture than is required for 
bacteria, and some flourish in the light. They are frequently 
found in bread, on meat, on leather, and on sugary liquids. They 
increase very rapidly after rainstorms, and wind affects them less 
than it does bacteria. 

Mildew is a form of mold found on moist clothes that have not 
been exposed to the fresh air. Mustiness is an indication of mold. 
Ringworm is due to this species of organism, which gets under the 
skin and causes inflammation. 



Yeasts. 

There is a third kind of plant micro-organism which, espe- 
cially in the country, is often present in house dust. That organism 
is yeast, which also is a single cell but which is reproduced by little 
buds that swell out from the parent cell and may or may not break 
off later. Those that float freely in the air, both inside and outside 
the house, are called "wild yeasts." So far as shape, size, and 
method of reproduction are concerned, these are little different from 
tlie cultivated yeast plants used to raise bread or to give the 
"sparkle" to sweet fermented liquors, such as l)eer. 

As the invisible yeast plants can remain alive for a long time 
without moisture, we may have them furnished to us in dried cakes 
as well as in the fresh compressed form. 

Today, even with the cultivated yeasts, the housewife who 
mixes her sponge in a dusty room, in dusty utensils, with old yeast 
— or with everything clean and fresh, if she lets the sponge rise too 
long or keeps it too hot — is likely to have sour bread. Bacteria 
can grow well when and where yeast cannot, so that acid will be 
made from the alcohal that the yeast makes from sugar. The yeast 
plants grow best at a medium temperature, about 75° to 90^ F., 
which is an average "summer heat." In a temperature above 90° 
P. yeast cannot grow so well, but bacteria grow better. 

152 



The little yeast plant, although so small and simple in structure, 
is endowed with many of the powers of trees and vegetables and 
other higher plants. It requires food, has a certain range of tem- 
perature in which it grows best, and is injured or killed by too high 
or too low temperature or by too little moisture. If it be given 
favorable conditions it will feed, grow rapidly, and reproduce itself 
by swelling out one part into a bud, which may or may not break 
away from the mother cell. The most favorable temperature for 
the rapid growth of the yeast plant, as already stated, is 75° to 90° 
F. 6elow that temperature the plant will not grow rapidly and 
therefore cannot do much work; at a temperature much above OO"" 
it will be killed, and a dead plant cannot work any more than a dead 
animal can. 

The work of the yeast plants is to change the sugar in bread 
sponge into two substances — alcohol, and a gas called carbon dioxid. 
The millions of little bubbles in the sponge cannot break through 
the sticky gluten of the flour, so they raise the whole mass. When 
the bread is baked the gas is dissipated, the gluten walls of these 
bubbles are hardened, and little holes remain, filled with air only. 
The alcohol, too, is driven off by the heat. 

It is very difficult to keep weeds out of the vegetable garden 
because their seeds are carried to the soil in many ways. When the 
weeds have sprouted or grown a little, they may be pulled up easily. 
In the bread-garden we want only yeast to grow, but it is very 
difficult to insure its growth alone since in the bread garden neither 
the good plants nor the weeds ever become visible. In no other way 
does household bacteriology interest the housekeeper so much as 
when connected with the baking of her bread. 

Compressed yeast-cakes and dry yeast-cakes consist of a mass 
of yeast plants mixed with some form of starch and pressed into 
cakes. One yeast-cake may contain one half-billion yeast plants. 
It should contain only one species of yeast, but oftentimes other 
plants gain access to the mixture. If a compressed yeast-cake has 
l)een kept over a day or two it begins to turn dark and to soften. 
That is an indication that the yeast plants are drying and that 
bacteria have gained access to the cake, thus causing decay. The 
cake should then be discarded, for it will not make good bread. 
If dough is left too long or if it is kept too warm, the yeast plants 
become weakened ; then the bacteria that may be present grow and 
produce an acid, making the bread sour. We scald the milk used 
in making bread in order to destroy the bacteria present. We bake 
bread for a full hour, or longer if the loaf is very large, in order 
to kill bacteria, yeasts, and molds, as all three may be present in a 
poorly baked loaf of bread and interfere not only with the keeping 
quality of the bread, but also with the health of the consumer. The 
careful housekeeper will have clean dishes in which to measure her 
ingredients and to mix her bread. She w^ill not sweep nor cause 
a dust to rise in the room where she makes her bread, because 

153 



bacteria are in that way raised into the air and may settle on her 
dough. She will cover the dough in order to keep out dust. With 
all her care there will always be some bacteria present, but they do 
not thrive in the sugar solution so well as healthy yeast plants do 
and at the temperature used for bread-making they do not grow 
so rapidly as do the yeast plants. They like the alcohol that the 
yeast makes from the sugar, however, so dough is kept at summer 
heat only long enough for the yeast to produce sufficient gas to raise 
the bread but not long enough for bacteria to get a start. It is 
))etter not to w^ap cloth around hot bread just taken from the oven, 
l)ecause moisture and warmth favor the groAvth of bacteria and 
bread that is cooled slowly may not keep so Avell as if cooled more 
rapidly. 

GERMS THAT ARE NOT HARMFUL. 

Some bacteria are of grettt value in the economy of nature. 
Man's bacterial friends have been found not less active than, and 
many times as numerous as, his bacterial foes. To his bacterial friends 
he owes the fertility of the soil by which plants are nourished. Tiiey 
tear down organic matter and pass it back to its simpler elements 
through the process of decay, thus ridding the earth of many harm- 
ful substances. This is the work of so-called nature's scavengers. 
There is advantage in what is called incipient decay. When l)acteria 
grow in food the products of decomposition are different from the 
original nature of the food and produce new odors and tastes. We 
often need the flavors thus produced to stimulate the flow of the 
digestive juices. The gamy taste of meat is due to the beginning 
of decomposition of some of its constituents, and the strong flavor 
of limburger cheese is owing to the same cause. Gamy food, how- 
ever, soon becomes objectionable; and cheese is I'uined hy the devel- 
opment of a too strong flavor of putrefaction. 

The most common substances that owe their flavor largely to 
the presence of bacteria are butter, cheese, and vinegar. Without 
bacteria, butter, like "apple-pie without the cheese," lacks flavor; 
while cheese with bacteria woultl be like "the play 'Handet' with 
Ilamlet left out" — an utter impossibility. AVhen you next enjoy 
the acidity of a pickle, remember to give credit for that pleasant 
sourness to certain tiny plants, such as those that you have seen 
massed together in enormous quantities in "mother" of vinegar. 
Whenever a liquid containing a small amount of alcohol cider, for 
example, is exposed to the air, bacteria find therein a home and 
food. A film similar in nature to "mother" spreads over the top of 
the liquid and before long the alcohol becomes acetic acid, witli 
vinegar as the result. 



154 



PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF 
BACTERIOLOGY. 

Thoughtfulness, together with a knowledge of the results of 
bad habits, brings many things to our notice to which we may have 
previously closed our eyes. We are prone to object to dirt without 
stopping to consider whether it is harmful dirt. Our housekeeping 
sensitiveness worries us if a neighbor calls and sees dust on the 
table. This dust may be less harmful, however, than a spoon dipped 
into the food that the cook is preparing for a meal, and then placed 
again in the food without being washed. 

Kissing.— Kissing is a custom as old, probably, as the history 
of human beings, and no doubt to be continued but to be indulged 
in only when persons are in a healthy condition. Mothers are able 
to control the custom of kissing babies for a short period ; they may 
lay a ban on the kissing of their infants by the admiring public. 
They should even control their own desire to kiss their children 
when affected with tuberculosis or suffering from tonsilitis or other 
inflammatory condition of the month or throat. 

Care of finger nails. — We may wash our hands thoroughly, but 
underneath the nails may be dirt, difficult to reach, which is a 
retreat for germs. Clean finger nails are always an asset, l)ut in 
the handling of food they are essential to safety. 

Coughing and sneezing. — For coughing and sneezing "in the 
open" there is no excuse. A handkerchief should be within easy 
reach to catch the offending spray from the mouth and nostrils. 
The truth of this statement is an argument for a pocket in ;i woman's 
dress, in which to keep the handkerchief. 

Handling of toilet articles. — The fingers of the attendant may 
after such handling unconsciously carry to the mouth infecting 
organisms. 

Care of discharges. — Body discharges contain the seed, or germ, 
(»f disease. These should not be left carelessly, as in the case of 
sputum, to dry and be wafted about by the Aviiul, nor thrown in a 
loose vault and allowed to reach the well or a body of water from 
which drinking water is obtained. 

Insect pests. — The fly is no longer unpopular merely because of 
tradition and because of its annoying bites and specks, but also 
l)ecause of the now welll-known fact that it carries disease germs 
on its feet and in its body. Mosquitoes, too, are in disgrace, for 
without them malaria w^ould trouble no one. 

Other animal disturbers. — Rats harbor the flea that spreads the 
germ of the bubonic plague. Cats and dogs are the delight of 
children and of many grown folks, nevertheless they sometimes bring 
with them germs of diphtheria, scarlet fever, and other diseases. 

155 



The common comb and brush. — Common toilet articles, unless 
thoroughly sterilized, are to be avoided in the barber shop, shampoo 
parlors, and even in the family, because dandruff and some other 
skin diseases are infectious. 

The common drinking-cup. — Public sentiment has dealt a blow 
to the common drinking-cup. We never think in our homes of using 
the same glass at table ; yet at school, and in other public places, 
promiscuous drinking from a cup is still too common, although rail- 
roads are fast abolishing the common cup. Laws have been passed 
in some states forbidding its use in public places. 

Food exposed to dust. — It may be difficult to cover all the left- 
overs and all the food in process of preparation ; but the housekeeper 
is likely to attempt to do this when she realizes that the surfaces of 
uncovered food catch many flying particles and germs that we would 
rather not have made a part of our diet. Probably, if the bread 
had not been left unprotected, the mouse would not have jumped 
into it. We can see the mouse, however, in time to avoid making 
him a part of our meal, whereas the obnoxious germ is so small as 
to escape notice. A table filled with left-overs, waiting to be pre- 
pared for the next meal, is a veritable dust-garden, and wiio knows 
what additions it may make to our diet? Of course, sufficient heat 
applied may kill anything dangerous, but we do not want dirt in 
our food even though the germs have been killed. 

Food exposed in the market. — Housekeepers are promoting the 
interests of health when they buy only those foodstuffs that are 
protected, on wagons and in the market, from the dust of the street. 
Handling foods with clean hands necessitates in the grocery a place 
in which the hands can be washed frequently. 

Washing clothes without boiling-. — There are pieces in the laun- 
dry that should be boiled ; handkerchiefs, bed linen, underclothing, 
and in fact, all clothing are the better for sterilization. The newer 
methods of cleaning and pressing woolen suits are good from a 
sanitary standpoint. Cleaning processes involve steam, whicli is 
a sterilizer, and often gasoline, which is a partial disinfectant. 

Tainted money. — No one refuses even a grimy, dirty bank-bill, 
but every one feels the need of washing the hands after handling it. 
Placing coins in the teeth shows decided lack of intelligence or 
reckless disregard of sanitary principles. The coins that pass 
through many hands may have become infected with the micro- 
organisms of diphtheria, tuberculosis, or other specific diseases. 

Care of toilets. — Public and private toilets should be disinfected 
very frequently. The basin, bath, and the seat especially, need care- 
ful washing with a disinfecting solution. Cloths and brushes used 
about the toilet should be scalded and not used for other purposes 
of cleaning. 

Careless dishwashing. — The thorough washing of pans, kettles, 
and eaiis makes hoiisewni-k and cooking far from easy, but in the 

156 



long rnn it is easier tlinn caring Tor sickness or being disabled. It 
is not so difficnlt to do the cooking Avlien some one else does the 
cleaning up. The fewer llic creases in a cooking ntensil and the 
more it is scalded, the better. Sun and hot water are most beneficial 
agents for the safe care of kitchen utensils. 

The refrigerator. — The refrigerator might be called on to tell 
many tales of the life history of germs, for its recesses hide a multi- 
tude of secrets. Slime left where the ice has melted shows the need 
of care in cleaning the refrigerator, for here is food for bacterial 
life. Tlie spilling of food on the shelves is another source of the 
same trouble. Ice should be well washed before being placed in 
the refrigerator. All bits of food should be removed from the 
shelves and crevices, the refrigerator should be often washed and 
scalded, and some antiseptic, such as Avashing-soda, should be used. 
The chill of the refrigerator retards the groAvth oP micro-organisms, 
but probably does not destroy them. 

BACTERIA AND MILK. 

As milk is one of the most important foodstuffs, especially for 
children, it is very important that every housewife should under- 
stand something of the effect of bacteria on it. Every one knows 
that milk contains a certain number of bacteria. Some of the germs 
are in the udder itself, but most of them get into milk after it is 
drawn. Dirty cows, dirty barns and stables, dirty hands and clothes 
of the milker, and dirty utensils all contribute to increase the 
number of germs in milk. If the milk is not properly cooled and 
and kept cold, bacteria multiply and produce many changes in it 
Avhich often trouble nurse and cook. 

The most common of the difficulties encountered in caring for 
milk is the simple souring, or lactic-acid fermentation. In addition 
to this well-known process, there are a number of other and more 
ti'oublesome changes, such as the appearing of bitter milk, slimy 
milk, and tainted milk. 

The lactic fermentation, or common "souring," of milk is 
brought about by a number of species of bacteria. Formerly it was 
supposed that a single species produced this change, w^hich consists 
in the splitting of the milk-sugar molecule into carbon dioxid and 
lactic acid. It is now known, however, that in the process of 
splitting up the milk-sugar other by-products are produced. In 
the simple lactic type of fermentation these secondary products are 
not very important. It should be noted, hoAvever, that in the souring 
of milk by different species of bacteria, correspondingly different 
by-products may result. In consequence of this the souring is often 
accompanied Avith by-products that are undesirable, if not injurious, 
to the consumer. In such cases the deleterious substances are often 
produced before the quantity of acid is sufficient to cause curdling. 
In fact, the by-products themselves may become harmful while the 
milk is still considered SAveet and Avholesome. The most telling 

157 



truth that conies to us from all inquiries on the subject is, that dif- 
ferent bacteria causing souring in milk produce very different effects 
on the milk itself, as is shown in the rapidity of the souring and in 
the types of fermentation accompanying it. 

Much has been written concerning disease-producing bacteria 
in milk. They belong to two distinct classes, namely: (1) The 
specific bacteria of certain diseases of cattle, which may, if the 
fuiimal is suffering from disease, gain entrance to the milk." In 
this class may be mentioned tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, 
and possibly anthrax. (2) The bacteria of certain human diseases, 
such as typhoid fever and diphtheria, and the virus of scarlatina and 
measles. A large number of epidemics of these diseases has been 
trfi(!ed to the milk supply; through it the infections occurred. The 
expbination of this is, that in cases in which the diseases existed 
among tlie attendants or in their homes, sufficient care was not taken 
in handling milk to prevent the entrance of the disease germs. In 
the case of typhoid fever the water used in rinsing utensils may 
he contaminated. In cases of diphtheria it often happens that those 
who have recently apparently recovered from the disease but still 
have the bacilli in their throats, are engaged in milking or in other- 
wise handling the milk, when, by sneezing or coughing, the bacilli 
from the throat may be introduced into the milk. The sad exper- 
iences of the past are teaching the importance of taking reasonable 
precautions against such infection. 

When digestive disorders, especially among children, follow the 
use of milk containing many bacteria, the immediate cause is quite 
as likely to he the acids and other by-products that liave been 
produced in the milk by various forms of bacteria, as the activities 
within the digestive tract of any one or more species of the micro- 
organisms consumed. We must look to the effect of bacteria on the 
milk itself for the cause of many, liut not all, of such ailments. It is 
to prevent those effects that pasteurization is employed. 

Milk is sterilized or pasteurized for two purposes : to keep it 
sweet for a longer time than would otherwise be possible, and to 
kill all harmful bacteria that it may contain. Sterilizing milk means 
boiling it for a certain length of time, or heating it nearly to the 
boiling point, allowing it to stand for some hours and again heating, 
repeating the operation several times. Boiled milk is very difficult 
for children to digest. Pasteurization is accomplished by bringing 
milk to a temperature of 60 to 65° C. (140 to 149° F.) and holding 
it there for twenty minutes, after which it is cooled quickly. This 
process does not affect the taste of the milk, and such milk is more 
readily digested than is boiled milk. We should not need to de- 
pend on sterilizing or pasteurizing as a means for providing germ- 
free milk. The milk should be produced in a clean manner, for 
clean raw milk is more wholesome for children than cooked milk, 
no matter what the method of cooking may be. Hot air and steam 
are valued germicidal agents; hence their wise use in the dairy. 

^ 4k M: i^ A it: Jk 

— Extract, Series No. •/, New York State College of Agrictil/ure, Cornell 
University. 153 



STARVE THE FLY, SWAT. 

A Fly Catechism. 

Where is tlie fly born? In iiintiure and other Hltli. 

Where does the t\y live? In all kinds of filth. lie carries filth 
on his feet and wings. 

AVhere does the Hy go when he leaves the nuinnre piles and the 
spittoon? He goes into the kitchen, the dining room and the store. 

What does tlie Hy ilo there? He walks on the bread and vege- 
tables l)athes in the milk and wipes his feet in the ])utter. 

What diseases does tiie fly carry? Typhoid fever, diarrheal 
diseases, diphtheria, scarlet fever and any eommunical)le tlisease. 

How can the Hy be prevented? By destroying all the filth about 
your premises. Screen the privy vault, cover the manure bin, burn 
all waste matter, destroy your garbage, screen your house. 

Either man must kill the Hy or the fly will kill man. 

Prevent the fly. 



159 



Rural or Small School Lunch Room 

{Hy Mar^Mrct McCliutock, M3, University of Illinois.) 



It is only within tlie last few years that the question of school 
lunches has received any attention in the United States. People did 
not seem to realize the connection between food and health, and 
health and good work in school. If a boy or girl was stupid or 
misbehaved, it was becanse of his or her temperament. AVhen it 
became a law that children should stay in school until fourteen 
years of age, a knowledge of the effect of education on the future 
well-being of the boys and girls Avas shown. 

On the other hand, statistics show that a lai'ge per cent, of 
school children are improperly fed or underfed. Investigation 
shows that this condition is responsible for much of the backward- 
ness and truency of school children, and many aenemie children 
owe their condition to improper feeding. If parents cannot improve 
matters, it seems that it is the duty of the school to do so, if possible. 

The first step in this line was to serve hot lunches in the poorer 
schools of large cities, or to give the children crackers and milk 
in the middle of the morning. The improvement in several direc- 
tions was marked and seemed to make people feel the necessity of 
the proper kind and ciuantity of food for school children. 

Since it is the duty of the school to educate children, and im- 
l)roper food makes it impossible for the school to do this; and, since 
the law" requires the children to go to school, it seems entirely within 
the rights of school authorities to provide proper nourishment. 
After one or two experiments in school luncheons, which were tried 
in the face of a great deal of opposition, people began to see there 
was less tendency to misbehave, the lessons were better, the health 
was better, and there was a marked improvement from social and 
cultural standpoints. 

At present, nearly all the large cities have their school lunch 
rooms supervised by the woman's club of the neighborhood, or by a 
woman provided by the board of education. Their necessity is 
shown by their rapid growth. Now, granted that warm lunches or 
warm dishes to supplement lunches brought from home are of so 
much benefit to children in the city schools, why not have them in 
the rural schools. 



There should be a table around which all conld sit. It would 
he used to prepare food and to wash dishes on. 

The things most easily served without a kitchen are soup, 
macaroni, rice, cocoa and things of preparation. If soups were to 

160 



be served the vegetables could be fixed the day before and the soup 
kept in the fireless cooker all night. The children could be divided 
into groups ; one group cooking, one iixing the table and one clean- 
ing up. Each group would do duty for a w^eek, then change. The 
work should be arranged so that very little, if any, of the school 
time is used in preparing food. This is essential in the case of 
those preparing the food, for they need their time, and in case of 
those studying or reciting, for if all this was done in one room 
their attention would be distracted from their studies. 

The food should be served attractively, using proper silver and 
paper napkins, to teach the children some of these essentials of table 
etiquette. The teacher should charge just enough to pay for the 
food. In many cases it is more than likely that the parents of some 
of the children would rather send vegetables, milk, eggs, butter and 
perhaps fruits and meat, instead of paying money. On fair sized 
farms the small quantities of produce sent to the school would hardly 
be missed and it would seem that the children were getting their 
lunch for nothing. 

— Ex I rail, hid i tot id I Clipping. 



161 



Equipment for Domestic Science Teaching 



There isn't any good reason why every rural school in the country 
should not teach cooking or sewing, or both. When it is possible, as it 
is now, to install a department of cooking in one corner of any school- 
house for $50.00 or less, then it is high time that every school board in 
the land, without further deliberation, should make provision for instruc- 
tion in the justly celebrated art of cookery. A Kansas domestic science 
teacher. Miss Ida Rigney, of the Kansas Agricultural College, says that 
$50 will buy all the equipment needed to teach young girls in a country 
school the elementary lessons in cookery. Miss Rigney has taught do- 
mestic science in the public schools for several years. A list of the equip- 
ment needed and the itemized, cost is given on this page. 

This equipment is complete. It might be possible to select a list 
of equipment that would be cheaper than this one; in fact Miss Rigney 
says a school could be fitted out scantily for $10 or $15. But then 
$50 is cheap enough to be within the reach of any school. Between 
50 and 600 rural schools in Kansas, in the last two or three years, have 
added courses in domestic science. 

EQUIPMENT FOR DISTRICT SCHOOL. 
Suggested by Miss Ida Rigney, Kansas State Agricultural College. Manhattan, Kansas. 



List Cost 

Table $20.00 

Stove (2 burner coal oil) 10.00 

Oven 2.00 

Oil Can (5 gallons) 60 

Dish Pans 4.00 

Kettles (Gray granite, 5% 

inches) 60 

4 Sauce Pans (Gray granite, 4i/^ 

inches) 40 

2 Omelet Pans 40 

4 Small China Bowls 40 

4 Teaspoons (Plated) 2.8 

Tablespoons (Plated i 30 

4 Paring Knives 20 

4 Kitchen Knives 3G 

4 Measuring Cups 40 

4 Cake Tins (4%x4M!x4%) 60 

4 Pie Tins (5 inch) 32 

2 Biscuit Cutters 10 

1 (Jrater 15 

2 Egg Beaters 12 

2 Egg Whips 10 

2 Rolling Pins 20 



List 



Cost 



1 Teakettle $ 1.00 



*1 Meat Grinder 

1 Lemon Reamer 

2 Strainers 

*2 Toasters 

1 Small Garbage Can .... 
*1 Broom 

1 Dust Pan 

1 Muffin Tin 

1 Butcher Knife 

*1 Frying Basket 

*2 Potato Mashers 

1 Flour Can (5 lbs.) 

1 Sugar Can (5 lbs.) 

1 pt. Mason .Tar for salt. . 

1 pt. Mason Jar for pepper 



Bn'Md Pans (9l^x4%x3ya) 80 



Molds (Tin) 
Soaji Dishes . . 
Scrub Brushes 
Towel Racks . 
Can Opener . . 



.20 
.30 
.20 
.20 
.05 



* China for Serving. 

Cup 

Saucer 

Small Plate 

Sauce Dish 

Sherbet (stemmed) 

Water Glass 

Bouillon Cup and Saucer. 

Knife 

Fork 

1 Bouillon Spoon 

1 Salad Fork 



.10 
.10 
.25 
.50 
.50 
.20 
.40 
.95 
.15 
.10 
.10 
.10 
.05 
.05 



.15 
.15 
.15 
.10 
.10 
.10 
.15 
.50 
.50 
.30 
.35 



♦Where funds are low, these may be omitted from the equipment. The cost may 
also be lessened by reducing the number of several items. 

Cost to Students. 

1 Apron .$ .50 

1 Dish Towel and Cloth 05 

1 Hand Towel 05 

1 Holder 05 

1 Notebook 05 

Total Cost of Equipmnt $49.23 

Total Cost to Student .70 



162 



A table four feet square with drawers and a cupboard on each 
side in which to keep the utensils can be built for about $20. This is 
large enough to satisfy four girls at a time easily, and even eight, if 
necessary. If more girls wish to take the work different hours may be 
arranged and the girls divided into shifts. 

Once the school is furnished with the necessary equipment the cost 
of maintenance, or the cost of teaching, is trivial. Two and one-half 
cents a lesson for each student is the approximate cost. A lesson usually 
consists of one recipe. The lessons, Miss Rigney suggests might be even 
given once or twice a week. Many Kansas schools find it convenient to 
devote Friday afternoon, after recess, to teaching cooking, agriculture, 
or manual training — one lesson a week. Many times the girls are glad 
to meet Saturdays to receive instruction in this work, which never fails 
to interest them. 

A lesson now and then at the noon hour on cold days, when hot 
drinks or soups may be made and served with the children's lunches, 
have been found to increase interest among the pupils. Even a lesson 
after school hours may be made so attractive that girls are eager to 
remain and learn to prepare some dish which, later, they may make for 
the family at home. Should the equipment include a stove of only one 
burner the girls should take turns in doing the various parts of the 
lessons. Under such conditions it is well, says Miss Rigney, to divide 
the class into divisions. The first division should do the "mixing," the 
second division the baking, and the third the washing of the utensils. 
At the next meeting of the class the divisions should exchange their 
work, thus enabling every girl to have a turn at each part of the work. 

The expense of teaching sewing in a rural school is even less than 
that of cooking, Miss Lewis says. The girls can very easily bring scraps 
of material from home upon which to try the various stitches, seams, 
patching and darning. The desire to learn to sew manifests itself very 
early in girls, and there is practically no age too young to introduce the 
study of this art in the school. To the youngest girls in the school sewing 
may be made interesting by letting them think of it as play at first. 
Making doll colthes and other things will be fascinating work for them, 
and at the same time they will be learning something that is valuable 
to them. 

— Kxlniit, 'I'/i/fs/ie/jJii'it' s J\t7'u-u'. 



163 



Domestic Science Club 



The Clubs of Domestic Science is carrying the teachings of 
''Eight Living" to those who have no other means of learning; 
teaching food values, how to make the cheaper foods palatable, 
economy in purchasing, home management, how to get the most 
from the means obtainable and how to live under hygienic conditions 
to the end that home life may be more attractive. 

CONSTITUTION OF THE CLUBS OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

ARTICLE I. 

Tlu' clul) shall l)e knoAvn as the Club of Domestic Science. 
ARTICLE II. 

The object of the club is to study scientific ways of conducting 
home work in order to preserve the best interests of the family ; to 
discuss the best expenditure of time, strength, and money to secure 
the highest efficiency ; to broaden the outlook of the family through 
the culture of the mother of the household ; to encourage a social 
spirit ill the community while working together for the good of the 
family; to consider the home as a part of the community and there- 
fore having relations with church, school and social well-being; to 
elevate the character of ordinary life to the end that the homes 
shall be the best in America and most attractive to the rising 
generation. 

Any person interested in the foregoing objects for study is 
eligible for membership. 

ARTICLE III. 

The officers shall be a President, a Vice-President, a Secretary, 
a Treasurer, Corresponding Secretary, and Teacher. 

The duty of the President shall be to preside at all meetings 
and to call extra sessions whenever practicable. 

The duty of the Vice-President is to act for the President in 
the absence of the latter or whenever she is unal^le to attend to 
her duties. 

The duties of the Secretary and the Treasurer shall be, respec- 
tively, to keep minutes of the meetings, and to care for the finances 
of the club if there be any. 

The Corresponding Secretary shall give notice of meetings, 
conduct correspondence of the club, and write for state and govern- 
ment bulletins that shall aid in the study of the club. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The majority of the members present at a meeting shall con- 
stitute a quorum. 

164 



ARTICLE V. 

The officers of the club shall constitute an executive council, 
which shall determine the place of meeting and the time and number 
of meetings, and arrange for the year's program. 

ARTICLE VI —ANNUAL MEETING. 

Section 1. — The annual meeting for the election of officers and 
the receiving of annual reports, and for any other ])usiness that may 

come regularly before the club, shall be held at 

The term of officers shall l)e for one year, or until their successors 
are elected and qualified. 

Section 2. — Nominations shall be 

ARTICLE VII,— AMENDMENTS. 

This Constitution maj'' be amended at any regular meeting of 
the club by a two-thirds vote of the members present and voting, 
provided the amendment has been submitted in writing at a pre- 
vious regular meeting. 

BY-LAWS. 

ARTICLE 1.— DUTIES OK OFFICERS. 

Section 1.— It shall be the duty of the President to preside at 
all meetings, and to perform all other duties appertaining to the 
office of president. 

Section 2. — In the absence of the President, the Vice-President 
shall perform all the duties appertaining to the president's office. 
Iii case of a vacancy, thfe Vice-President shall succeed to the office 
of the President until the next regular election. 

Section 3. — The Secretary shall keep a correct record of all 
transactions of the club. 

Section 4. — The Treasurer shall receive all moneys of the club, 
collect all dues, and keep an accurate account of all receipts and 
disbursements. She shall pay no bills, except on orders of the Exec- 
utive Council. 

Section 5. — The Corresponding Secretary shall give notice of 
meetings, conduct the correspoiulence of the club, and write for 
state and government bulletins that shall aid in the study undei-- 
taken by the club. 

ARTICLE II.— QUORUM. 

The majority of the members present at a meeting shall con- 
stitute a quorum. 

ARTICLE III.— DUES. 

The dues of this club shall be $1.00 pei- annum, payable two 
weeks before the annual meeting. 

165 



Farmers' Bulletins 



The United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C, has issued the following free farmers' bulletins (by Congi-cs- 
sional distribution) dealing with the subjects as follows: 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 375 — Care of Food in the Home. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 248 — The Lawn. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 3 4 — Meat as Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 127 — Important Isecticides. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 131 — Household Tests. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 459 — House flies. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 487 — ^Cheese and Its Uses. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 332 — Nuts as a Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 3 63 — Milk as a Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 182 — Poultry as a Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 389- — Bread and Bread-making. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 85 — Fish as Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 93 — Sugar as Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 345 — Disinfectants. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 413 — Milk and Its Use. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 293 — Fruit as a Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 128 — Eggs as a Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 84 — Experiment Station Work. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 295 — Potatoes as a Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 2 98 — Corn as a Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 203 — Canned Fruits, Preserves. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 25 6 — Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 121 — Beans, Peas, Legumes as a Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 249 — Cereals as a Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 490 — Bacteria in Milk. 



Boston Cook Book, by Mrs. Lincoln, published by Wilson & Son. 
Cambridge, Mass. 

Illinois University (Urbana-Champaign) Bulletin, Vol. X, No. 13 — 
Choosing Textiles. 

Illinois University Bulletin, Vol. IX, No. 32- — Rational Diet. 

Illinois University Bulletin, Vol. IX, No. 36 — Principles of Jelly Mak- 
ing. 

National Food Magazine — Pierce Publishing Co., 45 West 34th Street, 
New York City, N. Y. 



Bulletins and books above referred to are excellent for Club under 
study. 



"As a rule the department of agriculture will not send more 
than a few of these bulletins at one time, and sometimes the depart- 
ment's supply is exhausted, so I would suggest that you select those 
subjects in which you are most interested. If you are acquainted 
with the congressman of your district it might be possible to secure 
them through him, as each congressman is allowed a liberal supply 
of such bulletins for distribution. These bulletins are almost inval- 
uable, being written by experts on the various subjects after careful 
and elaborate investigations." — Extract, Chicago Tribune. 

166 



I N DEX 

Page 

Average Composition of American Foods, Tiie 20-22 

Batters 32 

Bread 33-34 

Cabbage, Dainty Way to Serve ... S2 

Cake Making, Rules for 39 

Cakes with Butter 41 

Cakes without Butter 4 

Candy !t2-03 

Canning Food, Table of Directions for Of! 

Canning, Methods of 95 

Canning and Preserving, Principles of 97-10 4 

Cheese liO 

Chemistry of Coffee 91 

Chemistry of a Cup of Tea 90 

Cookies r! S 

Cooking in Deep Fat 4 4 

Cost of Food 13 2-137 

Custards, Rules for 24-25 

Decoration of the Home, The 18-19 

Dietary Standard 8 

Dietary Standards, How to Apply 1 ^ 8-1 3 9 

Directions for Frying 45 

Domestic Science Clubs 16 4-165 

Economical Balanced Rations 1 40-142 

Economy in Club Entertaining 143 

Eggs 28-29 

Equipment for Domestic Science Teaching 162-163 

Farmers' Bulletins 166 

Fish 4 2-4 3 

Fly Catechism 1 .r, 9 

Food Outline 10 

Food Preservation 94 

Freezing S 7 

Functions and Uses of Foods 9 

Home Nursing ]45 

Household Bacteriology 151-15 8 

Housekeeping 14 

Household Acids 15-16-17 

Ice Cream 88-89 

Illustration of Cooking Lesson 13 

Invalid Cookery 144 

Keeping of Vegetables, Fruits and Meats 104 



INDEX- Continued 



Page 

Laundry 1 05-1 3 1 

Laying the "Table 11-12 

Leavening Agents 31 

Meats — 

Broiling 54 

Cuts of Meat . 47-51 

General Methods of Preparing Meat for the Table 55-80 

Meat Cuts and their Uses 52 

Sauted Meat 53 

Table showing the Digestibility of Different Kinds of Meats. . 5 2 

Ways of Cooking Meats 55 

Milk 23 

Pastry 36 

Pudding 26-2 7 

Rural or Small School Lunch Room 160-161 

Salad and Salad Dressings 85-86 

SandM^ches 84 

Scientific Cookery 7 

Souffles 37 

Soups without Meats 4 6 

Steaming, General Rules for 35 

Vegetables, General Rules for 81-92 

Weights and Measures for a Cook 83 

What You Should Eat 14 6-150 



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